", complement: the words on the right side of the heads
", E.g. a touching story about a sentimental girl 8. Phrase Structure Rules
? NP → (Det)N (PP) ? VP → (Qual) V ( NP) ? AP → (Deg)A (PP) ? PP → (Deg) P (NP) 9. XP rule X= N, V, A or P ", XP →(specifier) X (complement) 10. X – theory ", XP →(specifier) X ", X - → X(complement) 11. Co-ordination rules ", X → X Con X 12. XP rule (revised): ", XP →(specifier) X (complement ) ", Matrix clause ", Complement phrase (CP) ", Complement clause ", Complementizers (Cs) 13. Modifier
", AP ", PP ", AdvP ", The expanded XP rules ", XP →(spec)(Mod) X (complement*)(Mod) 14. The S rule ", S NP VP ", Det N V P Det N | | | | | | ", The cat is on the mat
15. Transformational Rules ", Once we have built a basic tree, we then might want to change it, for example to turn it into a question.
1. John is going to school. 2. Is John going to school?
", What happened between (1) and (2)? \question? What change did we make? 16.Deep structure and surface structure:
Deep structure is a level of syntactic representation that results from insertion of lexical items into the tree structure generated by the phrase structure rules. ", Surface structure is a level of syntactic representation that results from the application of whatever transformations are needed to yield the final syntactic form of the sentence. 17. The organization of the syntactic component ", The XP rule ", Deep structure ", transformations ", Surface structure 18. Wh Movement
", Move the wh phrase to the beginning of the sentence ", Move a wh phrase to the specifier position under CP
19. Word Order ", Recall that languages can choose the order of the constituents in a phrase structure rule. ? English: PP → P NP ? Japanese: PP → NP P 20. SVO ", We can say that the overall word-order in a simple sentence is Subject-Verb-Object or SVO.
There are two choices for each rule:
1. Sentence: S → NP VP S → VP NP 2. Verb Phrase: VP → V NP VP → NP V 21. Assignments ", Draw two possible trees for the sentence “The boy saw the man with the telescope. ”
5. Semantics
1. Semantics is the study of meaning.
2. The Meanings of Meaning ", Everyday use and ambiguity of the word mean(ing)
", (1) Daddy, what does 'unique' mean? (2) When Mary talks about \(3) 'Purchase' means the same as 'buy'. (4) Gwailou means \(5) When he drinks it means he's depressed. (6) I didn't mean to hurt you.
3. Ogden and Richards' The Meaning of Meaning (1923) ", sixteen different meanings of the words \of them: ", John means to write. 'intends’
", A green light means go. 'indicates' Health means everything. 'has importance' ", His look was full of meaning. 'special import' ", What is the meaning of life? 'point, purpose'
", What does 'capitalist' mean to you? 'convey' ", What does ‘cornea‘(角膜)mean? 'refer to in the world'
4. What does meaning mean in linguistics? ", It is the last kind of use that comes closest to the focus of linguistic semantics. In modern linguistics, the meaning is studied by making detailed analyses of the way words and sentences are used in specific contexts (\any more than measures such as \This is an approach shared by a number of philosophers and psychologists. Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889- 1951), in particular, stressed its importance in his dictum: %use in the language.\
5. 4 views concerning the study of meaning
", The naming theory ", The conceptual theory ", Contextualism ", behaviorism 6. The naming theory
", Plato ",Words are names or labels for things. ", Limitations of the theory: it can be applicable to nouns only, but verbs, adjectives, and adverbs are not names or labels; imaginary things like “dragon”;abstract nouns like “joy” 7. The conceptual theory ", Ogden & Richards' Triangle
", THOUGHT (concepts, images, schemas)
/ \\
(Sense) / \\
/ \\
(language) WORDS - - - - - - - - WORLD
(things, situations) (Reference)
", Note: (i) Reference as an indirect relation
(ii) Sense as a psychological notion ", What is the link between the language and concept? 8. Contextualism ", Ludwig Wittgenstein ", Malinowski ", J.R.Firth
", 2 kinds of contexts: the situational context and the linguistic context 9. Behaviorism
", Bloomfield 1926, 1935 Behaviorism vs. mentalism ", Human and animal behavior ", Stimulus and response ", S -> r ... s -> R Jack and Jill 10. Lexical meaning
", Sense and reference ", Sense refers to the meaning of a Noun Phrase which determines its referent; ", Reference refers to that part of meaning of a Noun Phrase which is its referent. ", Sense is abstract and de-contextualized;
", Reference is concrete and contextualized. 11. sense relations between words ", 1.synonymy ", 2.polysemy ", 3.homonymy ", 4.hyponymy ", 5.antonymy 11.1. synonymy ", two words, same meaning never complete; tendency toward divergence, e.g small - little, but cf. small change and little sister ", a) dialectal synonyms ", b) stylistic synonyms ", c) synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning ", d) collocational synonyms ", e) semantically different synonyms
11.2. polysemy ", one word, many meanings ", eye 'organ of sight', 'center of hurricane' , 'hole in needle' 11.3.homonymy ", different words, same sound
", bear 'carry' bear 'furry creature' bare 'naked' ", cf. Homonymy, Homography: different words, same spelling bow 'knotted ribbon' bow 'front of ship'
11.4.hyponymy
", superordinate (hyponym) to subordinate Also: co-hyponyms
", Problematic superordinates: ", aunt - uncle > none sweet - sour - bitter > Tastes , but no Adj chair - sofa - couch > ? sitting furniture (Sitzm?bel) 11.5. antonymy
(1) Gradable (scalar) antonyms: cold. . hot (2) Complementary antonyms: dead - alive
(3) Relational opposites: teach - learn husband - wife
12. six sense relations between sentences ", a) X is synonymous with Y ", b) X is inconsistent with Y ", c) X entails Y (Y is an entailment of X) ", d) X presupposes Y (Y is a prerequisite of X) ", e) X is a contradiction? ", f) X is semantically anomalous? 13. Analysis of meaning ", Componential analysis ", Predication analysis ", grammatical meaning ", semantic meaning
13.1 Componential analysis ", Features in Semantic Theory
", man = [+human] [+adult] [+male] woman = [+human] [+adult] [+female]
girl = [+human] [-adult] [+female] boy = [+human] [-adult] [+male] ", stool = [+sitting] [+legs] [-back] [-arms] [+single person] chair = [+sitting] [+legs] [+back] [+/- arms] [+single person] sofa = [+sitting] [+/-legs] [+back] [+arms] [-single person] etc ", cow = [+bovine] [+adult] [+female] ", ewe = [+ovine] [+adult] [+female] bull = [+bovine] [+adult] [+male] ", ram = [+ovine] [+adult] [+male] calf = [+bovine] [- adult] ", lamb = [+ovine] [-adult]
", But should calf = [+/-female] [+/-male] or simply unspecified? ", And what about: steer? = [+bovine] [+adult] [-male] [-female]
13.2Predication analysis ", It is proposed by G. Leech. In his framework of analysis, the basic unit is called predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. A predication consists of arguments and predicate. An argument is a logical participant in a predication. A predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence. 14.Interdisciplinary nature of semantics (1) ", philosophy: definitions, truth, logic
", linguistics: lexical, grammatical meaning; structural ambiguity ", psychology: concepts, categorization, learning
", law: interpretation, entailment translation: translatability, paraphrase ", computer science: processing and representation of information 15. Interdisciplinary nature of semantics(2)
", musicology: musical meaning (Joseph Swain: Musical Languages, 1997) ", anthropology: cultural meaning, relativity
", literary criticism: interpretation, ambiguity, metaphor ", religion (Anna Wierzbicka, What did Jesus mean?, 2001) 16. Assignments:
", Summarize the four approaches to the studies on meaning.
", Specify the five major sense relations ", 1.synonymy 2.polysemy ", 3.homonymy 4.hyponymy ", 5.antonymy ", Define the following terms: ", componential analysis ", Predication analysis
6 Pragmatics
1. Pragmatics is the study of meaning in context 2. Contextualist view ", Ludwig Wittgenstein ", Malinowski ", J.R.Firth
", 2 kinds of contexts: the situational context and the linguistic context 3. Some issues in Pragmatics
", Deixis指示 ", Speech acts言语行为 ", Indirect language间接语言 ", Conversation会话 ", Politeness礼貌 ", Cross-cultural communication跨文化交际 ", Presupposition预设
4. Pragmatics and Semantics
", a There is continuum between Semantics (things that are true by the
DEFINITIONS and RULES) and Pragrmatics (things that are true by virtue of the REAL WORLD ", Complementarism: semantics studies meaning in the abstract; pragmatics studies meaning in the context/use.
5. Consider the following sentences:
? The rock ate my lunch. Semantically false, because \ANIMATE subject.
? The giraffe ate the hyena. Grey area, does SEMANTICS include the concept VEGETARIAN?? ? The giraffe ate one hundred pounds of grass today. Pragmatics, how much DOES a giraffe eat in a day? 6. Context
", According to Firth, context includes the relevant features of participants: persons, personalities, the verbal and non-verbal action of the participants, the relevant objects and the effect of the verbal action. Hymes’ notion of context includes addressor, addressee, topic, setting, channel, code, message form, event, key and purpose. ", Shared knowledge
7. Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning ", Sentence is often studied as the abstract, intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of predication. Utterance is the issuance in an actual context. ", The meaning of a sentence is abstract and decontextualized,while the meaning of an utterance is concrete and contextdependent.
8. Speech Act Theory ", Austin noticed that some sentences are special in that they DO things. One class is PERFORMATIVES. When spoken such sentences do the work:
? I (hereby) declare the fair open. (\
", Performatives行事: Performatives were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable. ", Constatives言事: constatives were statements that either state or describe, and were thus