verifiable
9. Three kinds of acts ", Locutionary act言内行为: locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology. ", Illocutionary act言外行为: an illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention. It is an act performed in saying something. ", Perlocutionary act言后行为: perlocutionary act is the act performed by saying something. 10. Searle’s classification of speech acts
Representatives: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true; ", Directives: trying to get the hearer to do something;
", Commissives: committing the speaker himself to future course of action; ", Expressives: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state; ", Declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying something 11. Principle of Conversation
", Grice discovered a number of conversational maxims (rules) that people generally obey. Two of them are: ? Be cooperative ? Be relevant
The following discourse represents a failure of cooperation: ? A: Do you know what time it is? ? B: Yes.
Or, if you know for sure that you're leaving on Tuesday it's misleading to say: \Monday or Tuesday.\
12. Four maxims ", The maxim of quantity ", The maxim of quality ", The maxim of relation The maxim of manner 13. Conversational Implicature
", conversational implicature: Conversational implicature occurs only when the maximsof Cooperative Principle are “flouted”.
A: Do you know where Mr. X lives?
B: Somewhere in the southern suburbs of the city.
(said when it is known to both A and B that B has Mr. X’s address.) A: Would you like to come to our party tonight? B: I’m afraid I’m not feeling so well today.
A: The hostess is an awful bore. Don’t you think? B: The roses in the garden are beautiful, aren’t they?
(said when it is known to both A and B that it is entirely possible for B to make a comment on the hostess)
A: Shall we get something for the kids?
B: yes. But I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.
(said when it is known to both A and B that B has no difficulty in pronouncing the word “ice-cream”).
14. Leech’s Politeness Principle
", Tact maxim ", Generosity maxim ", Approbation maxim ", Modesty maxim ", Agreement maxim ", Sympathy maxim 15. The 6 maxims of Leech’s PP
tact generosity
approbation modesty
agreement sympathy
16. Tact Maxim:1. Minimize cost to other 2.Maximize benefit to other Generosity Maxim:1. Minimize benefit to self 2. Maximize cost to self
Approbation Maxim: 1. Minimize dispraise of other 2. Maximize praise of other Modesty Maxim:1. Minimize praise of self 2. Maximize dispraise of self 17. Agreement Maxim: 1.Minimize disagreement between self and other
2.Maximize agreement between self and other
Sympathy Maxim: 1. Minimize antipathy between self and other
2. Maximize sympathy between self and other
18. Politeness scale: Directness direct
Could you possibly answer the phone? Would you mind answering the phone? Can you answer the phone? Will you answer the phone? I want you to answer the phone.
Answer the phone.
indirect 19. Politeness scale: Cost – benefit benefit
Have another sandwich. Enjoy your holiday.
Look at that. Sit down. Hand me the newspaper. Peel these potatoes.
Cost
20. Presuppositions ", Statements or questions that presuppose a related sentence. \statements. \? You stopped beating your donkey. ? You did beat your donkey. ? You beat something. ? You have a donkey.
? ... ", \21. assignments ", Speech act theory ", coperative principle ", conversational implicature
7. Language Change
1. Review
", Prescriptive vs.descriptive (Chapter 1) ", The definition of language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication (Chapter 1) ", Word formation: affixation, composition, conversion, back formation, blend, shortening , coinage (Chapter 3) Contextualism (Chapter 5) Context (Chapter 6) 2. All languages change through time
",Languages change in the phonology, morphology, syntax, lexicon and semantic components of the grammar.
3. The changes of language at different levels (1) ",Sound change
",Morphological and syntactic change ", a) change in “agreement” rule ", b) change in negation rule ", c) process of simplification ", d) loss of inflections
4. The changes of language at different levels (2) ",Vocabulary change ", a) addition of new words(coinage, clipped words, blending, acronyms, backformation, functional shift, borrowing) ", b) loss of words
", c) changes in the meaning of words (widening of meaning, narrowing of meaning,meaning shift)
5. Some recent trends ", Moving towards greater informality ",The influence of American English ",The influence of science and technology
a) space travel b) computer and internet language c) ecology 6. Causes of language change ", a) The rapid development of science and technology has led to the creation of many new words: fax, laser, telecom ", b) As more and more women have taken up activities formerly reserved for men, more neutral job titles have been created: chairman-chairperson, fireman-fire fighter. ", c) The way children acquire the language provides a basic cause of change. ", d) “economy of memory ” and “theory of least effort”. foe/foes, cow/cows (kine) cheap-cheaply
", e) other factors, e.g. elaboration of grammar 7. Summary ",The linguistic change is complex.
",The linguistic change is gradual. ",The exact reasons for language change are still elusive and need to be further investigated. 8. Assignments ",1. Illustrate the vocabulary change with examples. ",2. What are the possible causes of language change?
8. Language and Society
1. The relatedness between language and society ", Language is used to establish and maintain social relationship. ", The kind of language the users choose is in part determined by his/her social background. ", Language is closely related to the structure of the society in which it is used, and the evaluation of a linguistic form is entirely social. 2. Speech community
", For general linguists, a speech community is defined as a group of people who form a community and share the same language or a particular variety of a language.
", For sociolinguists, a speech community is defined as a group of people who do in fact have the opportunity to interact with each other and who share not just a single language with its related varieties but also attitudes toward linguistic norms.
3. speech variety ", Speech variety, or language variety, refers to any distinguishable form of speech or a group of speakers. E.g. regional dialects, sociolects and register. 4.Two approaches to sociolinguistic studies
", There are two approaches to sociolinguistic studies: a bird’s-eye view of language (macrosociolinguistics) and a worm’s-eye view of language (micro- sociolinguistics). ", a bird’s-eye view of language: we can look at society as a whole and consider how language functions in it and how it reflects the social differentiations . ", a worm’s-eye view of language is to look at language from the point of view of an individual member within it.
5. Varieties of language ", Dialectal varieties (regional dialect, sociolect, language and gender, language and age, idiolect, ethnic dialect) ", Register（语域） ", Degree of formality
5.1 Dialectal varieties ", regional dialect (geographical barrier) ", Sociolect (social class, Received Pronunciation)
", language and gender (pronunciation, lexical items, politeness) ", language and age (conservative)
", Idiolect (personal) ", ethnic dialect (less privileged population, racial discrimination or segregation)
5.2 register ", linguistic repertoire（个人语言变体的总和）: the totality of linguistic varieties possessed by an individual constitutes his linguistic repertoire.
", Halliday’s register theory: field of discourse (why and about), tenor of discourse (to whom), and mode of discourse (how)
5.3 Degree of formality ", Language used on different occasions differs in the degree of formality, which is determined by the social variables, e,g, who we are talking with and what we talking about. An American linguist Martin Joos, distinguishes five stages of formality, namely, intimate, casual, consultative, formal and frozen.
6. Standard dialect
", The standard variety is a superimposed, socially prestigious dialect of a language. It is the language employed by the government and judiciary system, used by the mass media, and taught in educational institutions. ", Features:
", 1) it is based on a selected variety of the language; ", 2) it is not a dialect a child acquires naturally like his regional dialect; ", 3) it has some special functions. 7. Pidgin and Creole
", A pidgin is a special language variety that mix or blends languages and it is used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes such as trading.
", When a pidgin has become the primary language of speech community, and is acquired by the children of that speech community as their native language, it is said to have become a Creole. 8. Bilingualism and diglossia
", In some speech community, two languages are used side by side with each having a different role to play, and language switching occurs when the situation changes. This constitutes the situation of bilingualism. ", Diglossia refers to a sociolinguistic situation similar to bilingualism. In a diglossic situation two varieties of a language exist side by side throughout the community, with each having a definite role to play. 9. Assignments
", How is language related to society? ", Illustrate Halliday’s register theory with examples ", Specify some kinds of varieties of language.
9. Language and Culture
1.The definition of culture:
In a broad sense, culture means the total way of life of a people, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and language that characterizes the life of human community.
In a narrow sense, culture may refer to local or specific practice, beliefs or customs, which can be mostly found in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture etc. Two types of culture: material culture and spiritual culture
2. The relationship between language and culture
Language and culture are inextricably intertwined. On the one hand, language as an integral part of human being, permeates his thinking and way of viewing the world, language both expresses and embodies cultural reality; On the other hand, language, as a product of culture, help perpetuate the culture, and the changes in language use reflect the cultural changes in return. 3. Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
The interdependence of language and thought is known as Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis.
linguistic determinism（语言决定论）and linguistic relativity（语言相对论）: Whorf sets forth a double principle: the principle of linguistic determinism, namely, that the way one thinks is determined by the language one speaks, and the principle of linguistic relativity, that differences among languages must therefore be reflected in the differences in the worldviews of their speakers.