4 因果
因果是两个事物之间的关系。一些说明文，议论文通过分析因果关系说明一个中心思想。如不能把因果关系解释清楚，文章将无法说明任何主题。
因果型段落的扩展模式有两种，一是分类编法，另一个是连环编排法。如果只讨论成因或只讨论结果，细节比较简单，只需按其重要性或其逻辑顺序进行编排。分类编排法指先讨论原因，然后讨论结果；或先讨论结果，后讨论原因。 1）分类编排法：
Music is my chief hobby. When I listen to music, good things happen to me. If I am lonely or homesick, I listen to pop music. The quick rhythm, the strong beats of drums lift my sprits. If I am familiar with a song, I will sing alone with it and my depression disappears. When I am bored or very tired, I listen to Mozart. His music makes me feel alive. Music also reminds me of home. Before I came to college, my sisters and I would listen to music and sing songs together and cheer us. Now I enjoy listening to music and singing with my roommates because their smiles make me remember the happy times with my family. For me, music is an excellent escape, and without it, I wouldn’t be so happy.
2) 连环编排法是先讨论一组因果，再一组因果，再一组因果，形成一个锁链。当因果紧密相连，前一果为后一果之因时，经常使用这种方式。
Students shouldn’t stay up so late. Because of the pressure of examinations, many students burn night candles. The next day, they have to get enough sleep. As a result, many of them get sleepy in class. They couldn’t catch what the teacher says. Not having studied their lessons well, they find it difficult to make good performance in examinations. So, it is not worthwhile to stay up late if you want to study well. 5.人物描写
人物描写包括外部特征、性格特征、思想状态、行为语言等，用于表现人物精神面貌、披露人物内心活动、揭示人物性格变化，借以突出作品主题思想。如：
My sister is a boyish girl. She has short and straight hair like a boy’s. She likes white, black and grey colors, as most boys do. She never cares for shirts, stockings but loves jackets and jeans. Sometimes she wears a men’s suit and leather shores as if she were a gentleman. Basketball and football are her favorite sports. She also enjoys watching boxing. She always shouts and cheers excitedly when she is watching a football match. When she is with her friends, she always says Ladies first” to other girls. The most interesting thing is that she has been mistaken for a boy many times. And she is pleased with that. She always says that she should be a boy. 第一句作者明确表示他眼中的妹妹是个男孩子气十足的小姑娘。这样读者大都会在心中勾画出一种从长相、穿着到言谈举止都特男孩化的女孩。下文作者正是通过穿着、外貌和性格等方面向读者展现一个活生生的人物形象。 6.地点描写
地点描写指用生动形象的语言对某一地点、某一环境进行具体逼真的描绘，使读者如临其境、如睹其物。地点描写的对象可大可小，在可以为城市、国家，小可是一间教室，一个房间。
地点描写自然按空间顺序排列，作者应立足于一个出发点，由远及近，由近到远，从里到外，从外到里，由左到右，或由右到左进行描写，顺序不可混乱，否则读者会迷失方向。如下面一段作者从大门开始，由外向里逐步介绍学校的布置，读者如同跟着作者参观了一所校园。
Now I will show you around our school. It is one of the largest middle schools in the city. When you step into the gate, you will see a beautiful flower bed before you. In the middle of the flower bed there is a fountain with many colored flowers around it. If you walk along the school road, you will come to the playground, on each side of which are rows of trees. We often read books under the trees. On the right of the playground are two classroom buildings. On the left is the newly-built four-storyed building. I’m lucky to study here. I love my school very much. 7.物体描写
描写物体时应侧重物的形状、规格大小、颜色和功能。任何一段文字都应有叙述的中心，对物的描写也不例外。同样，主题句也应反映出作者对所要描写物体的看法、态度。如：
The first thing I notice in the bride’s room is the beautiful curtain. This curtain is patchwork in design, and is
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sewn out of squares of materials of different colors like white, light green, brown and orange. It is made of silk, trimmed with delicate braids. It is about six feet long and hangs from a wooden rail. The curtain matches perfectly with the dark wooden rail and furniture in the room.
通过主题句可以看出作者想向读者描写的是一幅漂亮的窗帘。
说明文高考指引
说明文在高考中出题的机会比较多，写说明文时应注意： 1．限制要说明的事物和范围，因为不可能在一篇短文中介绍太多的事物。比如写一篇题为“How to improve your English” 的说明文，就必须引用一些实例来说明。由于题目要求写英语学习方面的进步，就不能列列举其他学科的成绩。 2．有足够多的、确切的例子阐述例证。如写 的说明文时，必须先用一些具体的事例，如老师如何备课堂上怎样使学生在活跃的气氛中学习以课后的辅导等。选例时不宜太多，否会给人以堆砌例证、罗列现象之感，但也不要一篇文章只选一例，因为即使事例较典型，若只选一例其说服力也不够有力。
3．用正确、恰当的顺序摆出事实、观点，对选择一些典型的事例，进行合理的安排，要主次分明。 4．注意用词和句子的准确性。
5．尽可能地使说明的内容有趣、生动，选用典型、新颖的素材，吸引读者。
说明文下水试游
1、假如你是李辉，参加了1998年7月25—30 日在山东烟台由英语辅导报社举办的全国中学生英
语夏令营活动。请根据所给提示，用英语写一篇100—140 字的报导，以便刊登在?英语通?上。 提示：1、来自全国各地的100多名中学生参加了活动； 2、有来自国内外的30多名英语教学专家；
3、营员们必须用英语交流；
4、举办了一系列活动：1）第二届全国中学生英语辩论赛； 2）第三届全国中学生英语演讲比赛； 3）参观了名胜古迹；
4）举办了英语晚会。
注意：1、应包括自己参加夏令营的体会。
2、参考词汇：1）英语辅导报社：English Coaching Paper Office
2) 1998年全国中学生英语夏令营：1998 National English Summer Camp for Middle
School Students (1998 NESCMSS);
3) 辩论：debate 4) 演讲比赛：speech competition 5) 主办：sponsor 6) 英语通： An Express Way to English
3、不要逐句翻译提示，可增加适当有关细节，使文章连贯。
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范文：
1998 National English Summer Camp for Middle School Students
As a lucky student, I attended the 1998 NESCMSS held in the beautiful seaside city of Yantai from July 25 to 30, which was sponsored by the English Coaching Paper Office. Over 100 students all over the country and 30 English teaching experts from home and abroad took part in the activity. All the campers were required to speak English. During the four days, a series of English activities were held including the Second National English Debate for Middle School Students and the Third National English Speech Competition for Middle School Students. We also visited some places of interest. A colourful English evening was held on July 29. The camp provided us with a valuable opportunity to speak English, make friends and exchange learning experience. I found my English much improved at the end of the camp. Never in my life shall I forget the impressive days in Yantai.
2、请根据下面表格中所提供的信息写一篇有关中美高中教育的短文.词数:100—120。 学制 学生 学习时间 课外活动 其他 中国 三年 学习努力，知识扎实 每天约10小时 学校、班级组织的多 班级和教室固定 美国 四年（大多数） 更加活泼，运用知识能力强 每天约8.5小时 学生自己组织的多 班级和教室不固定，到老师办公室上课 生词：课外活动 extra curricular 范文：
There are differences between high school in China and that in the United States. High school in China lasts three years, while in most US states four years. In China, students are in fixed classes and classrooms. Every day they study hard for about 10 hours and have a solid knowledge. But in the United States, students don’t have fixed classes or classrooms and they go to their teachers’ offices for classes. They spend about 8.5 hours on study a day. They are lively and good at activities organized by themselves. However, in China, the students’ extra curricular activities are mostly organized by schools and classes. 3、写作题目：New Development for Central and Western China
假如你是某报社记者，请根据下表提供的信息写一篇英文稿，简要地报道中国开发西部的有关情况。 范围：9个省，自治区(autonomous regions)，一个直辖市(municipality) 面积：540万平方公里 主要情况 人口：2.85亿 交通(transportation)建设：修建多余公路，铁路 环境保护：退耕还林，防治污染 实施要点 资源利用：开发利用其丰富的天然资源 人才引进：广纳各类专家，技术人员
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注意：1、短文须包括所有提示要点；适当增加细节，使内容连贯。 2、短文的开头已经给出，不计入总词数。 3、词数：100左右。 范文：
New Development for Central and Western China
The Chinese government has recently decided to develop central and western China. This part of China includes 9 provinces and autonomous regions and one municipality, covering an area of 5.4 million square kilometers with a population of 285 million.
The government will pay special attention to their transportation system. Some highways and railways will be built. To protect nature, farmers will return farmland to forest. Also, measures should be taken to prevent pollution. Western China is rich in natural resources, which can be exploited and made full use of. To meet the needs of the development, all kinds of experts and skilled workers are to be brought in.
We have every reason to believe that the efforts of the government will be a great success. As a result of the great project, the central and western regions of China will surely achieve greater and faster development in the new century. The people will have a better life and China will surely be richer and stronger.
应用文指导
书信写作指导
—、书信写作要求
书信(Letter)一般可分为事务信件或公函(Business Letter or Offical Correspondence)以及私人信件
(Private Letter)两大类。一般包括以下几个要点： 1） 收信人的姓名和地址；
2） 寄信人的姓名及其与收信人的关系； 3） 寄信人的地址（有时可以省略）； 4） 写信的时间； 5） 信的内容。 1. 书信的格式
1） 信头(Heading)； 2） 称呼(Salutation)；
3） 正文(Body of the letter)； 4） 结束语(Complimentary close)； 5） 签名(signature)。 2. 书信的种类 1） 邀请信
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邀请信有正式和非正式之分，也有介于两者之间者。正式邀请信一般属于公函类，私人邀请信一般属于非正式文体。邀请朋友、熟人参加某一聚会时，再词句上不一定多加斟酌，用词太正规倒显得关系不密切。但是如果与被邀请人不太熟悉的话，最好用正式文体。如虽认识但并不十分了解，文体可介于两个者之间。由此可见，私人邀请究竟用什么文体，关键看与被邀请人之间的亲疏的程度。邀请信要明确写出活动（是晚会、晚餐还是一般的聚会等）、活动的时间地点组织这项活动的理由，有时还应告诉对方可能出席的人，另外一般希望对方给予答复。 （1） 非正式邀请信，如； 26 Coventry St. London
Sept. 15th, 1999. Dear Jack,
I am going to the cinema to see the Red River Valley and I have two tickets. Would you like to come? The film starts at 7:30 p.m. Maybe we can meet at the Covent Garden Station at 7:00 p.m. and have a drink before the film starts. Please phone me at home to let me know. Looking forward to seeing you. Love Mary
这封信是写给朋友的，所以用语比较随便，比较口语化。 （2） 正式邀请信，如： Dear Ms. Gupta;
It’s our great pleasure to announce that Jan. 19th is the 3rd anniversary of the founding of our corporation. We have a small party as follows: 7:00p.m.,Jan. 19th, Room No.123, Kunlun Hotel. At this moment, we would like to express our sincere gratitude to our clients for both courtesy and support over the past three years. Please confirm if you plant to attend. Yours Sincerely, Lewis
这是一封正式邀请信，十分正规，无论从句式，还是用语都十分讲究。 (3) 介于正式和非正式之间的邀请信，如： No.4 Middle School Beijing 100034 April 29th,2000
Dear Miss Katherine,
I am very pleased to write to you. My name is Yu Hong and I am monitor of Class One, Grade Three of the No.2 Middle School of Ji'nan. Last year, you came here to give a speech, which was \Reading\My classmates and I all thank you very much. We will have an English evening at 7:00--9:00 on the evening of May 4th in our classroom. Would you please come and attend the evening party? At the party, we will sing English songs, play games and so on. And we are anxious to invite you to come to sing us an English song. After that we can enjoy the music. We hope to see you soon. Yours Yu Hong
这封信是写给一位外籍教师的，这位外籍教师曾经到过这所学校，虽然作者认识，但并不十分了解。 2）感谢信
感谢信可分为感谢馈赠、感谢款待、感谢帮助、感谢送行和感谢探病等。 感谢信一般包括以下几点： ①对收信人的称谓；
②写信的目的；（Thank you for?）
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