上海大学毕业设计(论文)
附录2，英译中英文原文 Sustainable urban development: Strategic considerations for urbanizina
nations
Sustainable development
All societies perform four functions with the natural,human, capital and information resources that are required for development: 1．they extract or otherwise obtain them; 2．they process or otherwise transform them;
3．they distribute and allocate the processed resources
4．they consume or utilize resources as individuals, families, communities and nations.
Extraction of resources beyond the capacity if the environment to replace them in resource depletion. Pollution of the environment occurs when methods used in extracting,processing,distributing and consuming resources creates wastes that arr discharged into air,land and water Development itself - be it economic, technological, social or cultural - is not the cause of resource depletion and environmental pollution. The cause is poorly managed development: the methods that society chooses to guide its development are the institutional mechanisms of economic, financial, social and cultural policies, environmental and urban/regional development policies, organizational structures, management systems, and laws and regulations. These institu-tional mechanisms result from a society’s system of values that determine its ethics.Unsustainable development is inequitable development that depletes non-renewable resources, consumes renewable resources at a rate faster than the ecosystem can regenerate them, and undermines the productive and reproductive capacities of the natural environment through pollution. Sustainable
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上海大学毕业设计(论文)
development is the process of equitable economic, social, cultural and technological betterment in a way that does not pollute ecosystems and deplete natural resources. Sustainable development implies the enhancement of human resources, the capabilities of communities to work towards economic, social, technological and cultural enhancement. It is heavily dependent on the attainment of sufficient capital and information resources. Simply addressing the proper management of natural resources without paying equal attention to the strengthening of human, capital and information resources will not, in the end, lead to sustainable development.Sustainable development cannot occur in any country without carefully taking into account its human settlements.Initiatives cannot be successfully undertaken in ensuring the sustainability of a country’s agriculture,forestry, fisheries and industries without addressing the context of the system of human settlements in which they occur. Human settlements are not only cities: with the increase in transactional flows that are occurring between human settlements in the latter part of this century, the historical distinction between urban and rural societies is quickly diminishing: hamlets, villages, towns and cities in urbanizing nations constitute intricate economic, social and regulatory systems that cannot be disaggregated in planning for truly sustainable development.As policy makers in Third World countries and development assistance agencies begin to grapple with sustainable development, they must carefully take into consideration the roles of human settlements in the extraction,consumption, processing and distribution of natural resources. They must develop strategies for ensuring sustainable urban development.
An urban typology of nations
There is a tradition of viewing the world as a construct of “developed” and “developing” nations. A more precise,urban typology, however, will better inform discussion and action on sustainable urban development. Countries can be classified by the kinds of urban growth they are currently experiencing (fig. 5) in the following four categories:
1.Urbanized countries such as Canada, the US, nations of Europe, the East Bloc, and most of South America;these countries no longer need to deal with massive population influxes into urban areas. Rather they are facing issues related to the operation, maintenance and rehabilitation of urban services and infrastructures. How they go about doing this will have significant impacts
on resource depletion, environmental pollution and health. As an indication of the magnitude of the issues involved,one may note that:
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上海大学毕业设计(论文)
anadians are the highest per capita consumers of energy in the world; on a C
per capita basis, they consume three times more energy than the Japanese and twenty tlmes more than the Chinese; being a highly urbanized society, most of this energy consumption clearly occurs in towns, cities and metropolitan regions2;
Of Canada’s hazardous industrial waste, 80 percent is dumped untreated into the aqueous and gaseous environment each year; One of every one hundred new-born children in Mexico City suffers from mental deficiencies thought to becaused by air pollution.
Nearly urbanized countries are principally countries in North Africa, the Middle East and parts of Central America; these countries are responding to the challenge of making, over a very short period of time, massive capital and institutional commitments to industrial and urban infrastructures that will set the course for their continued economic, technological, social and cultural development well into the next century. They will also provide the framework through which resource depletion, pollution and their effects on environmental health will occur. A typical example of the type and scale of problems may be given:
The infant mortality rate in metropolitan Alexandria exceeds that of Egypt as a whole: typhoid, hepatitis and dysentery transmitted through polluted water bodies are endemic.3
? Rapidly urbanizing countries are most of the countries of Asia and Africa.
These nations face a daunting task of compressing centuries of development into a period of two or three generations. They are among the poorest countries in the world yet are facing massive population influxes to cities. The quantitative and qualitative inadequacies of existing urban infrastructures, and the inefficient urban and environmental management systems that generally exist in these countries, are causing severe depletion of land, water and fuelwood resources and serious pollution of water and air. Examples of characteristio problems are:
The physical size of urban areas in rapidly urbanizing nations is expected to double from 8 million hectares to more than 17 million hectares between 1980 and the year 2000; much of this expansion will be on land currently used for agricultural and forestry purposes[4];
Over-consumption of fresh groundwater in the southern and eastern parts of Bangkok, a rapidly urbanizing metropolis, has led to their sinking by 5 to 10 cm a year (a rate faster than in Venice during its worse period of subsidence) with
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上海大学毕业设计(论文)
concomitant impacts on buildings and surface and below-grade infrastructure[5];
The percentage of urban dwellers with access to potable water in Bangladesh, Burma, India, Nepal and Thailand declined between 1980 and 1985 yet rose for their rural populationss.
Domestic and industrial pollution is wiping out fisheries in areas downstream from Jakarta, Seoul and Manila;
Air pollution is known to be the cause of 48 percent of all lung cancer and other respiratory diseases in Manila7;
In Calcutta 60 percent of the population suffers from respiratory diseases caused by air pollutlon Moderately urbanizing countries are the countries of Burma, Kampuchea and Sri Lanka in which urban growth rates are generally quite low. However, China, even though its urban growth rates are not as high as in rapidly urbanizing countries, has an urban population of over 200 million people. Serious environmental problems exist in many Chinese cities:
Shanghai’s Huangpu River and Suzhou Creek are so polluted that they are believed to be the cause of 80 percent of that city’s cancer fatalities*;
The hepatitis epidemic in Shanghai in 1988, that struck 1.2 million residents and claimed the lives of thousands,was caused by untreated sewage contaminating clam beds near the Yangtse River[10];
Lung cancer in urban China is four to seven times the national average - low-grade coal is the major energy source in China.The regional distribution of these four types of countries is shown in figure 6. Each of these fourtypes of nations faces common issues vis-à-vis the natural environment,although priorities for dealing with them vary. But each also faces unique problems and opportunities. Policy makers, therefore, particularly in development assistance agencies, must clearly recognize both the commonalities and the differences in addressing strategies for sustainable urban development. Types of urban systems
the levels of urbanization described above but also to Strategic planning for sustainable urban development will be heavily influenced by the type of urban system being planned for. Strategic considerations - objectives,policies and institutional mechanisms - will therefore need to respond not only to the exigencies posed by the levels of urbanization described above but also to the following forms of human settlement:
intermediate and secondary cities: There is no universal consensus on the size of intermediate and secondary cities. A secondary city in Mexico
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上海大学毕业设计(论文)
would clearly correspond to a huge metropolis in Rwanda. However, in 1980 over 80 percent of the urban population in the Third World lived in cities and towns with less than 100,000 inhabitants.12 The importance of intermediate and secondary cities is largely in their linkage of rural agricultural producers to national and international markets. Characterized by their small size and interconnectedness, these cities are playing increasingly important roles in the implementation of many national policies on agricultural production, productivity and import substitution.
Metropolitan regions: These settlements vary in size from 1 million to
20 million people. They are characterized by their large size, a mononuclear form,high concentrations of formal and informal economic activity within their boundaries, and widespread poverty.By the end of this decade, there will be 83 metropolitan regions in nearly urbanized, rapidly urbanizing and moderately urbanizing countries. Most will be in Asia
Megalopolis: The emergence of a new, higher-order form of settlement poses challenges to sustainable development that are not nearly well enough understood.A form of settlement that has recently begun to emerge, both in urbanized and urbanizing nations, is \Unlike “mega-cities” which are huge,mononuclear metropolitan regions, a megalopolis is characterized by comparatively large populatfons ranging from 20 million to 100 million, a band-like urban struc ture consisting of at least two metropolitan poles surrounded by agricultural land, forests and a closely-linked system of smaller cities and towns, strong connectivity between the poles along a major transportation axis,strong “transactional” economic activity in distribution and services, and a marked tendency to act as an economic, social and technological “gateway” to the outside world.
The impact of this highly complex and dynamic form of human settlement - combining both metropolitan regions and intermediate and secondary cities – on regional and global environments must be taken into account in the formulation of strategies for sustainable urban development in an increasing number of countries,such as China, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Philippines,Pakistan, India and in parts of South America.
Elements of a strategy for sustainable urban development
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