mathematical reasoning. Every social explanation has been exhausted---this is innate. Only about 20 percent of American girls in elementary grades reach the average level of male performance in tests of spatial ability. And the U. S. Employment Service says that all classes of engineering and most scientific and technical occupations require spatial ability found in the top 10 percent of the population.
⒁The best course of action would be to open all the doors and let girls and boys compete wherever they wish, without demanding anything like sexual quotas. But in a culture where males still hold most of the best jobs, this best course will be hard to defend.
Feminism n.女权运动 Graphic adj.绘画似的, 图解的 Pinnacle n.小尖塔 Psychic adj.精神的
glamorize v.使有魔力, 使光荣 Glamorization run over温习 be wary of谨防 head-in-the-sand逃避困难 holdover 延期 magnetic resonance磁共振 resound
9 People’s needs
［1］In the 1940s, psychologist Abraham Maslow recognized that workers perform as they do in order to satisfy a wide variety of needs. He realized that these needs would have to be classified to explain motion. The model he worked out is called Maslow’s ladder. Two principles underlie this model: A human being is an animal with many needs, and only those needs not yet fully satisfied cause a person to act. When needs on a lower level are satisfied, at least in part, the rung above becomes a goal a person will strive to reach. With these principles in mind, let us now take a look at each set of needs depicted in the model. ［2］All the basic drives that sustain life—food, clothing and shelter—are called physiological needs. 1 A person must satisfy these needs before pursuing any other objective. Most people, of course, strongly desire more than the minimum level of satisfaction required for survival: They want three meals a day instead of one and a house instead of a hut.
［3］The physiological needs are readily satisfied in modern societies by money. Even the few pennies earned by nineteenth-century laborers were strong motivation to people who had not eaten for several days. They would suffer almost any abuse to collect them and live another day. ［4］People have a strong desire to feel protected. 2 Usually this means protection against loss of the physical necessities, the idea of cushion against misfortune. Once more, money will effectively satisfy this level of need. Even today few people succeed in earning enough money to feel completely secure. This is why the classical theory of motivation held on so long. ［5］Business now does a reasonably good fob of meeting the worker’s demands for safety. 3 Wages are high enough to allow most workers to save for a rainy day. Guaranteed fob security, pension plans, health insurance, life insurance, and employer contributions to Social Security are all examples of direct satisfaction of safety needs. ［6］Humans are social animals. Their desires to associate with others and to be loved by others are nearly as strong as their will to survive. Indeed, even when the need for safety is not totally satisfied, people begin feeling social needs.4
［7］This is the first level of needs that money cannot readily satisfy. As the Hawthorne Studies clearly showed, workers’ desire to be accepted by co-workers could motivate them more strongly than the desire to earn more money. Furthermore, workers need no impetus from management to seek satisfaction of their social needs. It is this drive that gives rise to the informal organization.
［8］People need to feel self-esteem, 4 a sense of personal worth derived from their competence, achievement, or independence. They also need the respect of others, a respect based on a recognition of their competence rather than on friendship (a social need). The need for esteem is closely tied to the idea of status.
［9］Status is one’s rank in comparison with others in the same social group. A person with high status is one who is well regarded by friends and associates. Several factors can give a person high status in society. These include wealth, social standing, advanced education, and a prestigious occupation. We are all familiar with status symbols such as a Cadillac or a mansion. Since these familiar symbols of status all cost money, it is common to mistake a striving for status as a drive to accumulate wealth. While earning a million dollars may indeed bestow status on an individual, a person motivated by esteem needs seeks the status, not the money. People in business often seek satisfaction of their esteem needs by pursuing a promotion. To some individuals, the status conferred by the title “vice-president” is more important than the salary that also comes with the job. Of course, people also manifest the need for esteem when they seek one of the occupations that our society holds in high esteem, such as physician, writer, artist, actor, university professor, lawyer, or musician.
［10］Maslow defined the need for self-realization as “the desire to become more what one is, to
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become everything one is capable of”. A person who operates on this level usually views work as something to be done in order to feel complete as a person to fulfill a personal philosophy. It is a higher-level need than the one for esteem because the person involved already feels that he or his work is worthwhile and respected. Such people find their work intrinsically interesting and satisfying.
［11］Relatively few people ever reach the stage where they are dominated by the need for self-realization. There is a tendency to think that only a Schweitzer or an Einstein is in this position. Maslow felt, however, that everyone is capable of feeling this need to some degree.
［12］Maslow’s ladder is a convenient way to classify human needs. But if you see it as a simple step-at-a-time procedure, you make a serious mistake. It is not necessary for a person to satisfy each level of need completely before being motivated by a higher level. In our society, the majority of people have reached at least the fourth rung of needs. Thus, in real life nearly all needs are interaction within the individual. In other words, all five need levels operate in an individual at once , and he will actively strive to improve his position on all five rungs simultaneously.
［13］There is another factor to be considered as needs work out in real life. As people partially satisfy each need, they tend to require more of it for full satisfaction. This is known as the phenomenon of rising expectations. It partially explains why workers today are unhappy with their earnings even though earnings have never been higher. A starving factory worker of the 1800s was overjoyed to earn enough to buy an extra potato. A factory worker today becomes angry if he cannot afford steak.
Rung 地位，橫档 fob 裤袋 V 骗人
10 Chimps and Mirror
Most of us have seen a dog staring at, sometimes snarling at, and approaching a reflection of itself. For most animals, seeing their own image in a mirror acts as a social stimulus. But does the dog recognize itself, or does the reflection simply signal a potential companion or threat? This question is of interest for a number of reasons. Apart from curiosity about the level of animals’ understanding, research on self-recognition in animals has several benefits. 1 It provides some insight into the evolutionary significance of this skill of self-recognition and into the level and kinds of cognitive competence that the skill requires. Such research also indicates the kinds of learning experiences that determine the development of self-recognition. 2 In addition, work with animals fosters the use of techniques that are not dependent on verbal responses and that may therefore be suitable for use with preverbal children.
The evidence indicates that dogs and almost all other nonhumans do not recognize themselves. In a series of clever experiments, however, Gallup has shown that the chimpanzee does have this capacity. Gallup exposed chimpanzees in a small cage to a full-length mirror for ten consecutive days. It was observed that over this period of time the number of self-directed responses increased. 3 These behaviors included grooming parts of the body while watching the results, guiding fingers in the mirror, and picking at teeth with the aid of the mirror. Describing one chimp, Gallup said, “Marge used the mirror to play with and inspect the bottom of her feet; she also liked at herself upside down in the mirror while suspended by her feet from the top of the cage; …she was also observed to stuff celery leaves up her nose using the mirror for purposes of visually guiding the stems into each nostril.”
Then the researchers devised a further test of self-recognition. The chimps were anesthetized and marks were placed over their eyebrows and behind their ears, areas the chimps could not directly observe. The mirror was temporarily removed from the cage, and baseline data regarding their attempts to touch these areas were recorded. The date clearly suggest that chimps do recognize themselves, or are selfaware, for their attempts to touch the marks increased when they viewed themselves. 4 Citing further evidence for this argument, Gallup noted that chimpanzees with no prior mirror experience did not direct behavior to the marks when they were first exposed to the mirror; that is, the other chimpanzees appeared to have remembered what they looked like and to have responded to the marks because they noticed changes in their appearance.
1它对于了解这种自身识别技能的进化意义以及这种技能所必需的认知能力的类别和水平提供了洞察力。 2另外，对动物的研究可以提高应用技术，该技术不不信赖于口头回答，因而适用于未学会说话的婴儿。
3 这些行为包括一边梳理身体一边观察结果，通过镜子指导指头的运作，借助于镜子剔牙等等
4盖洛普做了进一步的引证以支持这一论点，他注意到事先没有见过镜子的黑猩猩被放在镜子前面时不会对所做的记号加以注意而有什么动作；这就是说，另外的黑猩猩似乎还记得它们原先的模样，会对这些记号作出反应，这是因为它们注意到了自己的变化。
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1 Giving psychologists the option to become trained prescribers may create a division among psychologists whereby some will be able to prescribe and others will not. As a result, major discord could emerge. It is possible that psychologists with the right to prescribe may consider themselves superior to those without the right. 2 If gaining prescription privileges would lead to broader third-party payments or full hospital privileges for those qualified to prescribe, psychologists unable to do so may feel that they have been accorded second-class status in their profession.
The debate, thus far, has focused on the training necessary to grant psychologists prescriptions and future role of psychologists. Prescription privileges could move psychologists closer to a medical model and further away from their historical goal. Psychology began in the late 19th century as an application for psychological techniques. Its focus has been on assessment, behavioral interventions, consultation, and applied research. Before the widespread use of psychotropic medications, psychiatry emphasized the practice of psychotherapy. Gradually, psychiatry moved toward increased reliance on drugs and away from psychotherapy. 3 It is possible, over time, that psychologists, like psychiatrists, could become more influenced by the use of medication.
Despite the argument that prescription privileges feel that they would be looked upon more favorably, gain prestige, and increase their caseload if they could have the same status of prescribing medication as psychiatrists do. Does this mean that a lack of prescription privileges promotes the image of psychology as an inferior profession to psychiatry? Contrary to this argument is the fact that psychologists are delivering more outpatient mental health care than any other group of providers.
4 Whatever some psychologists may perceive as a therapeutic drawback because they are unable to offer prescriptions for psychotropic medications apparently is not recognized by the general public. Psychologists may have flourished because they have offered a clear and distinct service from psychiatry. The use of medication may send a message to patients that may interfere with personal change and growth. 5 Medication can undercut psychotherapy efforts by implying that benefits come from external agents, not from one’s own efforts at change and growth.
A large portion of the population prefers the non-medication orientation of psychology. If psychologists began prescribing medications, many of their patients seeking alternative treatment might turn to social workers or other non-medical therapists. There is little question that psychologists’ prescription privileges could have profound effects on the future direction of their profession.
1有选择地培训一些心理学者成为处方医生可能造成在心理专家的内部有所区别，由此，一些专家有资格开处方而另一些却无处方权。2如果获得处方权会导致第三方的支出增加或者使有处方资格者享有完全的医院权利，那些无处方权的心理治疗开业者可能自我感觉已被划为二流从业人员。3随着时间的流逝，有可能发生的是：像精神病医师一样，心理医生也会更多地使用药物疗法。4由于心理医生对作用于精神类药物无处方权，他们可能察觉到这是治疗上的一个困难。很明显，这一点并非被公众所公认。5药物疗法意味着治疗效果源自外部因素，而非患者随着改变和发展自身努力的结果。在这一点上，药物可能会掩饰心理治疗的效果。
12 Hobbies
A gifted American psychologist has said, “Worry is a spasm of the emotion; the mind catches hold of something and will not let it go.” It is useless to argue with the mind in this condition. The stronger the will, the more futile the task. One can only gently insinuate something else into its convulsive grasp. And if this something else is rightly chosen, if it is really attended by the illumination of another field of interest, gradually, and often quite swiftly, the old undue grip relaxes and the process of recuperation and repair begins.
The cultivation of a hobby and new forms of interest is therefore a policy of the first importance to a public man. But this is not a business that can be undertaken in a day or swiftly improvised by a mere command of the will. The growth of alternative mental interests is a long process. The seeds must be carefully chosen; they must fall on good ground; they must be sedulously tended, if the vivifying fruits are to be at hand when needed.
To be really happy and really safe, one ought to have at least two or three hobbies, and they must all be real. It is no use starting late in life to say: “I will take an interest in this or that,” such an attempt only aggravates the strain of mental effort. A man may acquire great knowledge of topics unconnected with his daily work, and yet get hardly any benefit or relief. It is no use doing what you like; you have got to like what you do. Broadly speaking, human beings may be divided into three classes: those who are toiled to death, those who are worried to death, and those who are bored to death. It is no use offering the manual laborer, tired out with a hard week’s sweat and effort, the chance of playing a game of football or baseball on Saturday afternoon. It is no use inviting the
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politician or the professional or business man, who has been working or worrying about serious things for six days, to work or worry about trifling things at the weekend.
As for the unfortunate people who can command everything they want, who can gratify every caprice and lay their hands on almost every object of desire__ for them a new pleasure, a new excitement is only an additional satiation. In vain they rush frantically round from place to place, trying to escape from avenging boredom by mere clatter and motion. For them discipline in one form or another is the most hopeful path.
It may also be said that rational, industrious, useful human beings are divided into two classes: first, those whose work is work and whose pleasure is pleasure; and secondly, those whose work and pleasure are one. Of these the former are the majority. They have their compensations. The long hours in the office or the factory bring with them as their reward, not only the means of sustenance, but a keen appetite for pleasure even in its simplest and most modest forms. But fortune’s favored children belong to the second class. Their life is a natural harmony. For them the working hours are never long enough. Each day is a holiday, and ordinary holidays, when they come, are grudged as enforced interruptions in an absorbing vocation. Yet to both classes, the need of an alternative outlook, of a change atmosphere, of a diversion of effort, is essential. Indeed, it may well be that those whose work is their pleasure are those who most need the means of banishing it at intervals from their minds. Lay one’s hands on, 得到
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