and Catholic. It has been seen as a conflict between Parliament and the King, but also as a conflict between the economic interests of the urban middle classes and the traditional economic interests of the Crown. The economic interests of the urban middle classes coincided with their religious (Puritan) ideology while the Crown's traditional economic interests correspondingly allied with Anglican religious belief. The English Civil War not only overthrew feudal system in England but also shook the foundation of the feudal rule in Europe. It is generally regarded as the beginning of modem world history.
VIII. The Commonwealth (1649-1660) After King Charles's execution in 1649, there was public outrage in England. In Scotland, the Scots proclaimed Charles's son their King. Young Charles, however, was not happy with the Presbyterian religion he was pledged to uphold. He marched into England where he was defeated at Worcester (September 1651), was pursued south and, after many adventures, finally escaped to France. The Second Civil War was over.
Meanwhile, Oliver Cromwell and the \—members of the Long Parliament who had voted for Charles's execution—declared England a Commonwealth. One of Cromwell's first acts was to crush without mercy .a rebellion in Ireland, killing all the inhabitants of the tOWBS rQf Drogheda and Wedord. Another was the suppression of the Levellers, a group within his own army who, led by John Lilbune, proposed a radical political programme not at
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all to his taste.
Cromwell replaced the Rump with an assembly largely chosen by himself.; but this lasted. a few rnonths. only, and in December 1653, by an Instrument of Government, he became Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England. Ruling increasingly by decree, he instituted direct military rule by dividing the country into ii districts commanded by major generals. This period witnessed the wanton destruction of numerous treasures in churches and cathedrals throughout the country on the grounds that they were \imrages\of the army grew as the Puritans exerted tough control of the nation's morals and as Oliver Cromwell became more and more a petty tyrant. Other aspects of this period were: establishment of colonies and colonial trade, religious toleration for all, and greater understanding of the economy. Yet Parliament feared the Army's permanent hold on power.
IX The Restoration and the Glorious Revolution of 1688
When Oliver Cromwell died in 1658, and was succeeded by his son, Richard, the regime began immediately to collapse. One of Cromwell's generals, George Monck, occupied London, and arranged for new parliamentary elections. The Parliament thus elected in 1660 resolved the crisis by asking the late King's.. son, to return. from his long exile in France as King Charles II (1660-1685). The Restoration, as it was called, was
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relatively smooth, and although not a perfect king, Charles II was able to capitalize on government goodwill towards him. Britain prospered under Charles. Parliament, which consisted for the most part of old Cavaliers and their sons, passed a series of severe laws called the Clarendon Code a- gainst the Puritans, now known as Nonconformists. Parliament was also afraid that Charles II would become a Catholic. They therefore passed the Test Act (1673), which excluded all Catholics from public office of any kind. In 1678 Titus Oates disclosed a \plot of the Roman Catholics to murder the King and restore the Roman Catholic religion. As a result, the nation was driven to a state of madness.. More than 2,000 innocent Roman Catholics were imprisoned, and the Disabling Act forbade any Catholics to sit in either House of Parliament.
Two of the most famous literary works of the late 17th century were written by Puritans: John Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress, which he wrote while in prison for refusing to accept the new regulations against Dissenters, and the blind poet John Milton's Paradise Lost, which was imbued with despair.
Religious differences came to a head when Charles II died in 1685 and, leaving no legitimate heir, was succeeded by his brother, James II (1685-88).
James II, brought up in exile in Europe, was a Catholic, and hoped to be able to rule without giving up his personal religious views. He was mistaken. England was no more tolerant of a Catholic as king in 1688
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than 40 years ago. The English politicians rejected James. II, and appealed to a Protestant king,. William of Orange, James's Dutch nephew and the husband of Mary, James's daughter, to invade and take the English throne. William landed at Torbay on November 15, 1688 and marched upon London. In England this takeover was relatively smooth, with no bloodshed, nor any execution of the King. This became known as the Glorious Revolution. In the final analysis the smoothness of this takeover owed much to luck—the invitation to William came at a time when he was at peace and he was free to go, and also strong winds made it difficult for James's navy to intercept him. Catholic favourites and advisers including the Jesuits fled. James's wife and child, followed by James went into exile. James died in France in 1701. Two important questions had to be solved: who was to rule? and with how much power? The questions were solved with a comprornise. Mary was English and descended from the Stuarts. She was made co-monarch and this satisfied the Tories and the qualms about attacking the king. William and Mary jointly accepted the Bill of Rights (1689) which, excluding any Roman Catholic from the succession, confirmed the principle of parliamentary supremacy and guaranteed free speech within both the House of Lords and the House of Commons. On their acceptance of this Bill, William and Mary were crowned jointly in Westminster Abbey. Thus the age of constitutional monarchy, of a monarchy with powers limited by Parliament, began.
However, the results for Ireland and Scotland were different. James II
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tried to gain control of Ireland—he did not leave his realm without a fight. He laid siege to a Protestant city in Ireland, Londonderry. Its inhabitants were forced to eat all sorts of vermin before they were released by William of Orange who defeated James in battle in 1690. Ever after in Ireland this incident embittered sectarian relations. Protestants associate 1690 with Catholic cruelty and tyranny, Catholics associate it with William of Orange's punishment of them by confiscating their lands. It has left a legacy of religious hatred. It had evil implications for Scotland, too. The Scots, especially the Catholics of the Highlands and islands, were infuriated at having their Stuart king deposed. They remained determined to work for the Stuarts' return. They did not give full support to William and Mary, nor the Hanoverian monarchs who were to follow. They regarded them both as foreign and unlawful.
During the reign of William and Mary (1688-1702), in fact little advance was made upon the 1689 situation.
In 1702, Mary's sister, Anne, came to the throne. It was duririg Anne's reign that the name Great Britain came into being when, in 1707, the Act of Union united England and Scotland.
一. Question on the chapter
1. What do you know about the nature and consequences of the Wars of
the Roses?
2. Why and how did the Reformation happen in England? And what was
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