浅谈责任会计在商业连锁超市的应用研究
Appendix
This article considers organisational sturctures and measures of divisional performance.Candidates need to develop competence in this vital area of finanical management so they can advise senior management on an analysis of divisional performance measurement.
Major businesses usually require some sort of divisional structrue.If it is to be made to
work,each will have its own performance certeria.To the accountant,therefore,is bequeathed the problem of measuring how well or badly each division has been at meeting these criteria.A number of bases can be used,including profit margin comparisons,return on capital or econmic value added.Whichever is chosen,it is essential that costs,revenue and asset valuations are adjusted so that ?like with like? comparisons are made.Qusetions of asset and cost allocation,valuation and apportionment all arise.
There are numerous examples of divisionalised structures. Many corporate structures comprise divisions with clear product remit. Such divisions often have their own management boards, financial targets and strategic plans. Often at the centre is group management responsible for strategic and financial control and ensures that management resource is optimised, best practice is adopted and synergies are realised between operating divisions.
Croda International for example is divided into three major business sectors: Cosmetic and Toiletries, Coatings and Chemicals. Each business sector sub-divides to divisions. The surface coatings sector comprises Industrial Paints, Powder Coatings, Printing Inks and Graphic Supplies
In a previous financial report the chairman was quoted as “the company will maintain a prudent financial approach with a decentralised management judged, and rewarded by performance. Each division is expected to produce a satisfactory return on capital employed, be capable of showing consistent and long-term growth and achieve a significant position in its particular markets.Its overall aim “is to achieve long-term growth in earnings per share, by continuing to build a broadly based speciality chemical group with operations in main market areas of the world”.It has been said that divisionalisation and decentralisation are sometimes regarded as synonymous but that in fact divisionalisation adds a new dimension by introducing performance responsibility to divisional management. Fulfilment of that
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浅谈责任会计在商业连锁超市的应用研究
responsibility can only be encouraged, rewarded and tempered if performance is measured and monitored on a sound, accepted and comparable basis
?Responsibility centres? provide the basis for one such approach. A responsibility centre has been defined by the Chartered Institute of Management Accountants as ?a segment of the organisation where an individual manager is held responsible for the segment?s performance?. There are three types of ?responsibility centre? – expense centres, profit centres, and investment centres:An expense centre is ?a location, function or items or equipment in respect of which controls may be ascertained and related to cost units for control purposes? .A profit centre is ?a segment of the business entity by which both revenues are received and expenditures are caused or controlled. Suche revenues and expenditure being used to evaluate segmental performance?. An investment centre is ?a profit centre in which inputs are measured in terms of expenses and outputs are measured in terms of revenues, and in which assets employed are also measured, the excess of revenues over expenditure then being employed?.
Together they form the basis for ?responsibility accounting?, a system of accounting, ?that segregates revenues and costs into areas of personal responsibility in order to assess performance attained by persons to whom authority has been assigned?. Thus it can be applied at all levels, to group, division, sector, business or product. The important point is that performance reporting reflects managerial responsibility and appropriate adjustments are made for those items which fall outside that responsibility. Profit responsibility performance can be reflected in figures relating profit to turnover. However, performance may be subject to the fairness of apportioned costs and transfer prices.
Investment responsibility performance can be judged on the basis of return on investment or residual income (excess earnings over the cost of capital). In each case the assets/capital included should be that over which the responsible management has control. It is also clear that assets must be valued on a consistent basis so that like for like comparisons can be made between different investment responsibility centres. Historical cost valuations should be converted to current valuations by using index numbers. Working capital should be included as part of the total assets/capital employed calculation with stocks valued on a similar basis between divisions. When measuring the return, it is usual for the average capital
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浅谈责任会计在商业连锁超市的应用研究
employed/total asset figure for the period to be used (the calculation is earnings times 100, divided by investment [assets/capital employed]). This can be subdivided into profit margin (profit as a percentage of sales), and asset turnover (sales divided by investment [assets/capital employed]).
Cost of capital used in residual income calculations should be the cost of financing the business or division, of which the investment responsibility is being assessed. This may be an average cost based on group experience or an amalgam of different costs. Residual income is a concept that has been used by accountants for four or more decades. Alfred Sloan, of General Motors Corporation, knew and used the principle in the 1920s. More recently Stern Stewart New York Consultancy Group has ?trade marked? the term EVA (Economic Value Added) for what amounts to the same thing. EVA, according to the book The Quest for Value – the EVA Management Guide, is simply the net operating profit after tax less the cost of capital (the weighted average cost of debt and equity) used in the business. Verity Perkins, a subsidiary of Lucas Verity, uses EVA to arrive at its investment decisions and performance measurement analysis and also to reward divisional managers and employees. In a recent paper in Accountancy Age, Andrew Sawers stated that: ?the formula works at any level of business, from the consolidated group figures, to a subsidiary, to a business unit, to a product line?. Measurement of divisional performance, therefore, calls for some form of responsibility accounting. It can be made in terms of earnings to sales, return on investment, residual income, or economic value added. But none is more fitting than residual income or its 1990s manifestation of economic value added
The Example illustrates the performance measures mentioned earlier.
Example: Northcliffe Foods PLC.The animal feeds division of Northcliffe Foods Plc, results for year ended 31 December 2000 showed: Turnover Costs: Materials (arms length suppliers) Materials (group-transfer price) Labour Production overhead Apportioned group costs Net profit ￡m 40.00 2.50 7.00 3.00 2.50 5.00 20.00 4
浅谈责任会计在商业连锁超市的应用研究
Profit for the year was ￡20.00m on a turnover of ￡40.00m giving a return to sales (profit margin) of 50%. However it must be noted that the division is only “management responsible” for 40% of its costs; 60% being transfers and apportioned costs.
Other divisional figures include: Fixed Asset Investment Working Capital Capital Structure: Equity Debt ￡m 65.00 15.00 80.00 ￡m 60.00 20.00 80.00 The dividend to shareholders had been 15% and interest of 10% was paid on the debt. Cost of capital is thus: Ratio of: Equity 3 x 15% = 45 10 55 Debt 1 x 10% = 55 4 = 13.75%
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浅谈责任会计在商业连锁超市的应用研究
附 录
本文认为，组织结构和措施，分区性能。候选人需要发展能力在这个重要领域的财
务管理，以使他们能够提醒高级管理人员的分析分区业绩衡量。
大企业通常需要某种形式的分区结构。如果要切实的进行工作，每个中心将有自己
的业绩标准。到会计师，因此，留下的问题，以及如何衡量或满足这些标准。一些是可以使用的，包括利润率比较，资本回报率和经济附加值。两者选择，至关重要的是成本、收益和资产估价的调整，以使类似的比较问题的资产和成本分配，估价和分配的所有问题。
有许多例子的结构。许多公司结构组成部门的职责有明确的产品。这种分歧往往有
自己的管理委员会，财务标准和战略计划。往往是在该中心是集团负责战略管理和财务控制，并确保资源的优化管理，最好的做法是通过协同实现业务之间的分歧。
例如Croda国际集团，分为三个主要业务部门，美容和化妆品，涂料和化学品。每
个业务部门的分红根据其实际完成情况而定。
在以往的财务报告上，主席引述该公司将继续保持审慎的财务做法，分散管理的判
断，并奖励业绩。每个部门将预计产生令人满意的资本回报率，能显示出一致和长期增长，并实现了重要的位置，在其特定的市场。其总体目标是实现长期增长的每股收益，继续建立一个基础广泛的专业化工集团，业务主要市场领域的世界。有人说分权管理和权利下放优势视为同义词，但实际上分权管理增加了新的层面，引入业绩责任分区管理。履行这一责任只能鼓励、奖励和锻。如果性能是衡量和检测在一个健全的接受和比较的基础。
责任中心提供了依据这样的办法。设立一个责任中心，已确立了特许管理会计师工
会作为一部分，该组织专属经理负责该部分。有三种类型的责任中心-费用中心、利润中心、投资中心：
费用中心的位置，功能或项目或设备在这方面的管制可能会确定和有关单位的成本
控制的目的。利润中心的一部分是企业实体的收入和支出造成或控制的。这种收入和支出被用来评价利润中心的性能。投资中心，利润中心的投入是衡量收支和产出衡量的收入，其中资产也雇佣衡量，过剩的收入超过支出再就业。
他们的共同基础是，责任会计，会计制度。该收入和成本方面的考虑到个人的责任，
以评估业绩的权利。
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浅谈责任会计在商业连锁超市的应用研究
因此可以适用到各级，各组，各部门，企业或者产品。最重要的是，责任会计所反
映的是会计发生的实际情况。
利润责任表现可以反映出有和数字有关的利润额，然而，性能可能会受到分摊费用
和转让价格的影响，投资责任的表现可以判断的基础上，投资回报率率或剩余收益，在每一种情况下，资产应包括该责任可管理控制的范围之内，同样清楚的是，资产价值必须保持一致，这样比较相似的不同投资责任中心。
历史成本估价应转为目前的数值估价，周转资金应列入其中的一部分，总资产与资
本计算的基础上在不同的部门之间展开。测量回报时，使用正常的评价资产/总资产数，这可分为利润率以及资产周转率。资产成本的剩余收入用于计算应纳融资成本企业或部门，其中投资责任正在评估，着可能是一个平静成本为基础的集团经验所产生的不同费用。剩余收益是一个经常应用的概念，已经使用很多年，阿尔佛雷德隆对通用汽车公司在20世纪20年代就引入了责任会计。
最近纽约斯特恩咨询公司，使用经济增加值，根据这一管理指南，实施经营税后利
润减去资本成长，其加权平均成本和债务中所使用的业务，帕金斯，卢卡斯的公司，使用其投资决策和业绩分析，奖励分区管理人员和雇员。
该例子说明业绩计量的前提。例如诺斯克里夫公司，在动物饲料食品企业中，截止
2000年显示营业额与费用发生的情况。可以看出的是，本年利润的营业额站40点，但是必须指出的是，该公司唯一管理责任40%作为费用，60%被转移和分摊。
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