②Past Participle: The cat owned by Sue is playful. ③Present Participle without commas: The cat sleeping on the rug belongs to Sue. ！注意这里并没有逗号
④定语从句 “,which” / that/ whose/ when等等，只要修饰特定名词即可 ⑤ADJ
★(2)位置
①当看到选项中同一个modifier被放到了不同的地方，要问自己，放在哪个地方modifier是closest(离修饰的名词越近越好) ②所有格里的名词不是名词：
*X’s box 里的X不能作为名词来处理 *所有格不能和of连用
*复数所有格一般都是错误的
(3)★关系代词
Which That Who Whose Whom Where When
①who 和 whom必须！修饰people；which和that不能修饰people ②where 修饰一个noun place: area, site, country等；
不能修饰抽象地点：condition, situation, case, circumstances, arrangement，要用 in which ③when可以来修饰一个event or time: period, age, 1987 or decade. 可以和in which互换 !!限制性定语从句that之类和非限制性定语从句“，which”的区别！！！！！根据句意来判断 Eg: People, who talk loudly on their cell phones in crowded trains, show little respect for other passengers. 错误
改： People who talk loudly on their cell phones in crowded trains show little respect for other passengers.如果who….是非限制性的话，去掉之后，句意发生了改变
The tallest mountain on Earth is Mount Everest that is on the border between N and T.错误
改：The tallest mountain on Earth is Mount Everest，WHICH is on the border between N and T. 原句表达的意思是tallest mountain，定语从句表达的是位置，并没有什么联系，可以去掉，且不影响句意。
④关系代词的省略：如果关系代词（which, whom）在从句作宾语，那么可以省略
(4)介词和分词
①通常来说，介宾短语直接跟在被修饰名词的后面
Eg: Researchers discovered that the most common RSIK FACTOR resulting in cholera epidemics is the LACK of a clean water supply.
3、ADVERBIAL MODIFIERS (1)类型 ①ADV
②Prepositional Phrase: The Team Attends staff meetings on Mondays.
③Present Participle with Commas: The engineer fixed the problem, earning himself a
promotion.
修饰部分的逻辑主语还是the engineer
④Past Participle with Commas: Exhilarated by the successful product launch, the team celebrated after work.
！！！注意修饰的逻辑，X,Y句型，不论X,Y哪一个是主句，哪一个是修饰，X都是原因，Y都是结果
*传说中的状语从句就是属于这一类，可以用来修饰除了名词和代词之外的任何东西（包括动词，修饰成分，句子等等等）--原来although这些都是修饰性成分啊！！！ ！！状语从句的引导词啊！
①时间：when / while/ since/ as/ till/ until/ before/ after/ whenever ②地点: where/ wherever ③原因: because/ as / since
④条件: if / unless / so long as / in case
⑤让步: though / although/ no matter / even if ⑥方式: as/as if/ as though ⑦比较: as….as/ not so … as / ⑧结果: so….that/ such….that ⑨目的: in order that
4、INITIAL MODIFIERS
!!INITIAL MODIFIERS THAT MUST APPLY TO THE FOLLOWING SUBJECT (1) STARTING WITH -ING(or with preposition + -ING) (2) PAST PARTICIPLE
(3) Just a NOUN(+modifiers) (4) ADJ(+modifiers) (5) Like/Unlike
!!Verbal nouns(eg:the exposure, the construction, the adoption) are impersonal. 也就是说不用主语发出
!!2种情况-ing：Gerund forms(eg:exposing, constructing, adopting) are used when the subject is directly involved.必须有主语的参与，或者强调过程
5、Which & -ING的对比(which 只能修饰Noun, “, ing”可以修饰前面整个句子) HOW TO USE \
(1) BASIC RULE: They modify the NOUN that Precedes The Comma (2) CAN MODIFY 2:
①the Noun that Immediately precedes the Comma
②the Noun that + Prep Phrase that immediately precedes the comma eg: ED's letters to SHD, which were written
此处，SHD=NOUN，LETTERS TO SHD=NOUN+PREP PHRASE,需要根据内容和从句的语法来选择 ！！WHICH 单独出现，必然follow a COMMA; “prep + WHICH\ On the table is a box, which contains all my paperwork. 可以
On the table is a box which contains all my paperwork. 不可以 On the table is a box that contains all my paperwork. 可以 On the table is a box in which I keep all my paperwork. 可以 On the table is a box， in which I keep all my paperwork.可以
!遇到定语从句和ing结构，根据意思来取舍（doing一般表示的是现在时） Eg:
The rate of language extinction is accelerating, a tendency ultimately culminating in the survival of just a few languages, according to some. (不好)
The rate of language extinction is accelerating, a tendency that will ultimately culminate in the survival of just a few languages, according to some. √
6、同位语修饰 (1) 由comma引出
(2)只包含一个Noun或者noun + modifier ！！具体的同位语只修饰preceding noun; ！！抽象的同位语可以修饰前面的一个句子，但是如果前面一个词也是抽象词的或就只修饰前面的
7、修饰和主句
FANBOYS可以连接动词！！
Eg: Both shocking and entertaining audiences across the nation, George Carlin influenced and inspired a generation of comedians yet struggled publicly with drug abuse.
8、Subgroup 和独立主格
(1) Subgroup 就是用来表达主句对象的一部分怎么样：（仅有三种表述） Eg:
①this model explains all known subatomic particles, some of which were only recently discovered.
②this model explains all known subatomic particles, some of them only recently discovered. ③this model explains all known subatomic particles, some only recently discovered.
！！遇到 SANAM 或者 many each either neither half one 等代表数量的都必须用这个结构次序
(2)独立主格
①构成：a noun plus a noun modifier
②作用：作为adv modifier修饰整个句子
③当独立主格出现在句子最后时，可以使用破折号----
8、数量词
(1)只修饰可数名词：Many, Few, Number of, Numerous (2)只修饰不可数名词：Much, Little, Amount, Great (3)皆可：More, most, enough, all
!!注意unit nouns: dollars or gallons. 作为一个一笔钱，是不可数的
!!使用numbers 这个单词时，要用greater than（在表示数字比较的时候）
!!使用 Increase表示的是the change of one thing over time; 使用 Greater表示的是比较
9、to和for在表示目的时的区别（详细见错题修饰-4） 一般认为for doing单纯表目的，是对前面名词的补充说明。而to do会有逻辑主语的问题。
错题集合
10、不定式to do结构的一些注意事项 ①词性：
名词：I love to swim. (所以to do结构可以作为主语) 形容词：The person to meet is here. 副词：Sue paused to eat lunch.
②注意，to do结构的动作发起者就是逻辑主语 1、Minivans carry as many as seven passengers and, compared with most sport utility vehicles, cost less, get better gas mileage, allow passengers to get in and out more easily, and have a smoother ride.
错误选项：Minivans, carrying as many as seven passengers, compared with most sport utility vehicles, cost less, 错误选项的错误在于，noun + modifier + modifier，这样的结构容易歧义，这里的compared可以被认为修饰passengers
五、Parallelism
1、Basic Principle of Parallelism
(1) The parallel structures are indicated by PARALLEL TAGS (signal works or markers) !! not omit words that follow each tag --> must be Parallel Grammar
(2) 遇到了and 或者 or的时候，需要从right to left，因为右边的是再tag后面的，然后到前面找到平行
①三个或三个以上并立时，出现AND和COMMA的时候，COMMAS andAND are tags ②the MODIFIERS don't have to - and shouldn't - be parallel to the MAIN ACTION
③MUST BE \X,Y,and Z\这样才表示三个例举例子
eg: hand signs used by natives and appearing in local rituals！！
记住这个特例，and 前后是appearing 和 used 都是participial phrase用于adj
*有that从句出现时，要注意that的平行
(3) NOT PERFECT PARALLEL:
eg: They argue just as frequently and about the same topics as the couple living next door to them. *这里的as frequently 和 about the same topics都是作adv修饰argue
!! between X and Y 必须平行
!!not allowed to end modifiers with prepositions! eg:the restaurant we ate At 错误
the restaurant AT WHICH WE ATE 正确
(4) Ideas reference parallel---> structures to be parallel
!!什么时候要在第二个比较处补出动词（helping verb的位置可以在noun后面，也可以在noun前面，但是如果有Modifier修饰noun,动词只能在前面） (1) if they are required by 2-part parallel signals(both...and,etc) (2) to resolve AMBIGUITY
eg:I know more about Shakespeare than my brother错误
I know more about Shakespeare than my brother does正确
2、AND的平行结构：
(1)结构成分是independent（除非they are sequence) (2)在优先级或者重要水平上相同 eg: I like apples, grapes, and bananas.
We ate dinner, saw a show, and (then) went to a club.
!! eg: A truck crashed in front of me on the freeway, and I was late to work.错误
改为因果关系： A truck crashed in front of me on the freeway, making me late to work. 或者 A truck crashed in front of me on the freeway, and I was thus late to work.
2.1、as well as 的平行结构 ①和as much as的用法差不多
Eg: She doesn’t play the piano as well as you do. ②as well as 连接名词 A as well as B is
③as well as 连接动词时，动词用动名词形式 She sings as well as playing the piano
④as well as 连接简单动词形式，构成一个插入语 He works, as well as sleeps, in the room.
⑤as well as 连接（分词或不定式动词）
We are repairing the roof, as well as painting the walls.
You ought to play games, as well as study books. (有to的时候要省略to) ⑥as well as放在句首，作介词，表达“除了…以外” As well as breaking his leg, he hurt his arm. ⑦连接形容词、副词，类似于and She is clever as well as beautiful. ⑧连接介词短语或从句
3、Linking verb (系动词) = be become