children, man is engaged in a constant struggle with nature.
为了生存，为了自己和子孙后代的衣食住行，人类和大自然不断进行斗争。 2．逆序法；即颠倒原文的顺序，将句首的内容放到句尾，句尾的内容放到句首。 1)He was dumb-founded at her insistence that he explain where every cent of his allowance had gone．她非要他讲清楚他津贴中的每一分钱都到哪儿去了，他哑口无言。
2)And I take heart from the fact that the enemy, which boasts that it can occupy the strategic point in a couple of hours, has not yet been able to take even the outlying regions, because of the stiff resistance that gets in the way.
敌人吹嘘说能在几小时内就占领该战略要地，可是由于一路受到顽强抵抗，结果甚至连外围地带也没能占领。这一事实使我增强了信心。 3) That our environment has little，if anything，to do with our abilities，characteristics and behavior is central to this theory． 这种理论的核心是，我们的环境同我们的才能、性格特征和行为即使有什么关系的话，也是微不足道的。
3. 时序法；按事件发生时间的先后顺序翻译。
1) We had been dismayed at home while reading of the natural calamities that followed one another for three years after we left China in 1959. 我们于1959年离开了中国。此后，中国连续三年遭到自然灾害。当我们在国内读到这方面的消息时，心情颇为低沉。
2) It was a keen disappointment that I had to postpone the visit I had intended to pay to China in January.
我原打算在今年一月访问中国，后来我又不得不予以推迟，这使我深感失望。 3) Dr. Smith resumed the activities of anti-cancer experiment begun in 1945 and financed by the Federal government as soon as he snapped from his original disappointment at repeated failures, which had resulted in its forced suspension.
史密斯医生于1945年开始着手由联邦政府资助的抗癌实验。他由于屡遭失败而感到沮丧，被迫终止了实验工作。现在他一重新振作起来，便立即恢复了抗癌实验活动。
4. 拆分法；将句中的插入成分提取出来单独翻译，另起一句放在句末。 1) They, not unexpectedly, did not respond. 他们没有答复，这完全是意料之中的事。
2) Illogically, she had expected some kind of miracle solution. 她满以为会有某种奇迹般的解决办法，这显然不合情理。
3) Behaviorists，in contrast，say that differences in scores are due to the fact that blacks are often deprived of many of the educational and other vantages that whites enjoy． 相反，行为主义者认为，成绩的差异是由于黑人往往被剥夺了白人在教育及其他环境方面所享有的许多有利条件。
---------------------------------------------- 第八讲 语态转换 约定俗成
VIII. 语态转换 约定俗成 考题实例：The behavioral sciences have been slow to change partly because the explanatory items often seem to be directly observed and partly because other kinds of explanations have been hard to find. （2002） 行为科学之所以发展缓慢，部分原因是用来解释行为的依据似乎往往是直接观察到的，部分原因是其他的解释方式一直难以找到。 不定式 状语从句 被动语态
考题实例：The role of natural selection in evolution was formulated only a little more than a hundred years ago, and the selective role of the environment in shaping and maintaining the behavior of the individual is only beginning to be recognized and studied. （2002） 自然选择在进化中的作用仅在一百多年前才得以阐明，而环境在塑造和保持个体行为时的选择作用则刚刚开始被认识和研究。 被动语态 词组短语
考题实例：During this transfer, traditional historical methods were augmented by additional methodologies designed to interpret the new forms of evidence in the historical study. （1999） 在这种转变中，历史学家研究历史时，那些解释新史料的新方法充实了传统的历史研究方法。
英语中的被动语态使用极为广泛，尤其以科技英语最为常见。考试中的阅读内容中有相当量的科技题材，所以翻译题目也往往少不了被动语态的处理。请看下面这道考试中的翻译题。
We were most impressed by the fact that even those patients were not told of their serious illness were quite aware of its potential outcome. 此题中出现了两处被动语态，前者were most impressed by（被?留下深刻印象）必须进行语态的转换，否则不便于汉语表述；后者were not told也应译成主动形式，而不要译成“没有被告知”；同位语从句前的the fact根据习惯可省略；its指代的是前面的illness，翻译时应明确译出所指代的名词，以免使表达含糊不清。 参考译文：我们感到印象最为深刻的是，那些患者即使没人告知其病情的严重性，他们对自己病情的潜在后果也一清二楚。 或：那些患者即使没人告知其病情的严重性，他们也知道自己的病情可能产生的后果。我们对此印象颇深。
II. 翻译被动语态的常用方法技巧
被动语态增词法汉语中的被动结构不那么常用，因为从习惯上讲，汉语中的“被”、“遭”、“受”、“挨”等字眼总是给人以不那么舒服的感觉，因此在英汉翻译时，我们应尽量将被动语态化为主动结构。请看下面这一典型译例： 原文：As oil is found deep in the ground its presence cannot be determined by a study of the surface. Consequently, a geological survey of the
underground rock structure must be carried out. If it is thought that the rocks in a certain area contain oil, a “drilling rig” is assembled. The most obvious part of a drilling rig is called “a derrick”. It is used to lift sections of pipe, which are lowered into the hole made by the drill. As the hole is being drilled, a steel pipe is pushed down to prevent the sides from falling in. If oil is struck a cover is firmly fixed to the top of the pipe and the oil is allowed to escape through a series of valves. 译文：由于石油深埋地下，靠研究地面，不能确定有没有石油。因此对地下岩层结构必须进行地质探测。如果认为某地区的岩层含石油，则在该处安装“钻机”。钻机中最显眼的部件叫做“井架”。井架用来吊升分节油管，把油管放入由钻头打出的孔中。当孔钻成后，放入钢管以防孔壁坍塌。如钻探到石油，则在油管顶部紧固地加盖，让石油通过一系列阀门流出。
短短百余字的一段，竟出现了十几处被动语态！而翻译成汉语后，十几处被动语态全都转换成了主动结构。因此，被动语态的英汉翻译，应本着约定俗成的原则，按汉语的习惯表达法尽量将被动语态化为主动结构。以下是几种常用的英语被动语态的处理方法。
1．将英语被动直接转为汉语的主动
1）Every moment of every day, energy is being transformed from one form into another.
每时每刻，能量都在由一种形式变为另一种形式。（保持原主语不变） 2）The picture was painted by Professor Smith. 这幅画是史密斯教授画的。（转换为系表结构）
3）A new way of displaying time has been given by electronics. 电子技术提供了一种新的显示时间的方法。（宾语转换成主语）
4) Communications satellites are used for international living transmission throughout the world.
全世界都将通信卫星用于国际间的实况转播。（状语充当主语）
5) Salt is known to have a very strong corroding effect on metals. 大家知道，盐对金属有很强的腐蚀作用。（增添主语）
6) If you had spoken clearly，you would have been understood． 假如你早说清了，别人就会理解你了。（增添主语） 2．将英语被动转为汉语的无主句
1) The unpleasant noise must be immediately put an end to. 必须立即终止这种讨厌的噪音。
2) Attention has been paid to the new measures to prevent corrosion. 已经注意到采取防腐新措施。
3) Best surface finish is provided by machining methods, especially by grinding.
用机械加工方法，特别是磨削方法，可以获得最佳表面光洁度。
4) When traveling, you are advised to take travelers‘ checks，which provide a secure alternative to carrying your money in cash． 旅游时，建议你用旅行支票，这比带现金安全。 3． 英语被动语态保持不变
英语被动语态的翻译，在必要的时候（尤其是用以表达令人不快的事件）也可以
译作汉语的被动结构，分别译作“被”、“给”、“遭”、“受”、“让”、“为??所”等字眼。
1) Any minute we would surely be spotted by enemy planes flying in and out of the airfield.
我们随时都会被出入机场的敌机发现。
2) At the end of the month he was fired for incompetence. 月底，他因自己无能而给解雇了。
3) He was set upon by two masked men. 他遭到两个蒙面男子的袭击。
4) Our foreign policy is supported by the people all over the world. 我们的对外政策受到全世界人民的支持。 5) He was pitied rather than disliked， 他让人可怜，而不是令人讨厌。
6) As soon as all the facts have been found out, we can begin to formulate a theory.
一旦所有的事实为人们所发现，理论即可形成。 4．英语被动语态用意译法表达
英语被动语态的谓语都是及物动词，有时候汉语中没有类似的表达法。在这种情况下，就只能根据原文的意思进行意译。
1) The village is populated by about 13,000 farmers. 这个村子里住着大约13,000农民。
2) Most trees are denuded of leaves in winter. 大多数树木冬天要落叶。
3) The news was passed on by word of mouth. 众口相传，消息不胫而走。
4) She and her husband have been asked out for the banquet. 她和丈夫应邀赴宴去了。
5) He has been wedded to translation. 他与翻译结下不解之缘。
6) Nowadays people usually prefer driving to being driven. 现在人们喜欢自己开车，而不喜欢坐别人开的车。
---------------------------------------------- 第九讲 正反交替 相得益彰
IX. 正反交替 相得益彰
考题实例：Until these issues are resolved, a technology of behavior will continue to be rejected, and with it possibly the only way to solve our problems.（2002）
字面翻译：直到这些问题被解决，研究行为的技术手段就会继续被排斥，解决问题的唯一方式可能也随之继续受到排斥。
（如果）这些问题得不到解决，研究行为的技术手段就会继续受到排斥，解决问
题的唯一方式可能也随之继续受到排斥。 （正说反译） 考题实例：There is no agreement whether methodology refers to the concepts peculiar to historical work in general or to the research techniques appropriate on the various branches of historical inquiry. （1999） 历史研究方法论是指一般历史研究中的特有概念，还是指历史研究中的众多具体领域适合研究方法，人们对此看法各异。 （反说正译 同位语从句 逆序法）
英语中的否定按语言学家们的划分大致上有4类：完全否定（带no的词语，如nothing, none等）、半否定（hardly, scarcely等）、部分否定（not all, not every等）及带否定意义的词语（fail, without等），翻译时一般情况下可以对号入座。不过也并非见到yes便是“是”，no便是“不”，有很多情况需要根据具体问题酌情处理，譬如这样一例： A: “I don‘t think he saw us.” B: “Yes, he did.”
这里的don’t think和Yes都不能按常规对号入座译作“不想”和“是的”，而应译作“认为（他没有）”和“不”。由此可见，在必要的时候，需要恰当地运用正反交替，只有这样，才能准确地传达出原文的意思。
1. 英译汉的正反交替的一般处理方法 1. 英语为肯定式，汉语译作否定式 有时候，照字面译出来会造成文句不通顺，因此需要正说反译。譬如Please keep the fire burning．我们一般不说“请保持火燃烧”，而是译作“别让火灭了。”这种方法可广泛用于各种词类、短语、甚至句子的翻译上，如： 1) It was beyond his power to sign such a contract. (prep.) 他无权签订这种合同。(介词beyond由“超过”之意转译为“无”)
2) Time is what we want most, but what, alas, many use worst. (adv.) 时间是我们最缺少的，但可叹之至，偏偏许多人最不善于利用。(副词worst由“最糟”之意转译为“最不善于”)
3) I have read your article. I expect to meet an older man. (adj.) 拜读了你的大作，没想到你这样年轻。(形容词older由“较年长”之意转译为“没想到”)
4) The guerrillas would rather fight to death before they surrendered. (conj.)
游击队员们宁愿战斗到死而决不投降。(连词before由“之前”转译为“决不”) 5) I dropped medicine and took up physics．
我不再学医，改学物理了。 (动词dropped由“掉下”之意转译为“不再学”) 6) The mother said she would let off her son washing the dishes if he could finish his assignment before supper．
母亲说，如果她儿子晚饭前能做完作业，就不让他刷碗了。(动词短语let off由“放开”之意转译为“不让”)
7）He dived into the water fully clothed and rescued the boy．
他没脱衣服就跳进水里救出了孩子。(状语fully clothed由“全身衣着”之意转译为“没脱衣服”)