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7 Most of the government's actions and other programmes have somewhat failed.
8 Masons were trained for the constructing parts of the rainwater harvesting
system.
9 The cost of rainwater harvesting systems was shared by local villagers and the
Practical Action South Asia.
10 Tanks increase both the amount and quality of the water for domestic use.
11 A widow earned money to send her daughter to go to school through the help of
rainwater harvesting.
12 Households benefited began to pay part of the maintenance or repairs.
13 Training two masons at the same time is much more preferable to training single
one.
14 Other organizations have begun building larger tanks than all the tanks built in
Muthukandya.
READING PASSAGE 11 文章背景：
科学偶然性。在科学家做实验或者调查的过程中，他们原来计划的目标是完成或发现某物质，但是在实验操作的过程中，突发的情况却给了他们新的方向和突破，让他们偏离了最初的初衷而很偶然的发现了新的东西。这种现象就称为Serendipity。
Serendipity:The Accidental Scientists
A A paradox (n.看似矛盾而实际却可能正确的说法) lies close to the heart of
scientific discovery. If you know just what you are looking for, finding it can hardly count as a discovery, since it was fully anticipated (v.预期). But if, on the other hand, you have no notion (n.概念) of what you are looking for, you cannot know when you have found it, and discovery, as such, is out of the question. In the philosophy of science, these extremes map onto the purist forms of deductivism (n.演绎) and inductivism (n.推理): In the former, the outcome is supposed to be logically contained in the premises (n.前提，假设) you start with; in the latter, you are recommended to start with no expectations whatsoever and see what turns up.
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B As in so many things, the ideal (adj. 理想的) position is widely supposed to
reside somewhere in between these two impossible-to-realize extremes. You want to have a good enough idea of what you are looking for to be surprised when you find something else of value, and you want to be ignorant enough of your end point that you can entertain alternative outcomes. Scientific discovery should, therefore, have an accidental aspect, but not too much of one. Serendipity is a word that expresses a position something like that. It's a fascinating word, and the late Robert King Merton– ?the father of the sociology of science‘–liked it well enough to compose its biography, assisted by the French cultural historian Elinor Barber.
C Serendipity means a ?happy accident‘ or ?pleasant surprise‘; specifically, the
accident of finding something good or useful without looking for it. The first noted use of ?serendipity‘ in the English language was by Horace Walpole (1717–1792). In a letter to Horace Mann (dated 28 January 1754) he said he formed it from the Persian fairy tale The Three Princes of Serendip, whose heroes ?were always making discoveries, by accidents and sagacity, of things they were not in quest of‘. The name stems from Serendip, an old name for Sri Lanka.
D Besides antiquarians, the other community that came to dwell on serendipity to
say something important about their practice was that of scientists. Many scientists, including the Harvard physiologist Walter Cannon and, later, the British immunologist Peter Medawar, liked to emphasize how much of scientific discovery was unplanned and even accidental. One of Cannon's favorite examples of such serendipity is Luigi Galvani's observation of the twitching (n.抽搐) of dissected frogs' legs, hanging (n.悬挂) from a copper wire, when they accidentally touched an iron railing, leading to the discovery of ?galvanism‘; another is Hans Christian Orsted's discovery of electromagnetism when he unintentionally brought a current-carrying wire parallel (adj.平行) to a magnetic needle. The context in which scientific serendipity was most contested and had its greatest resonance was that connected with the idea of planned science. The serendipitists were not all inhabitants of academic ivory towers. Two of the great early-20th-century American pioneers of industrial research–Willis Whitney and Irving Langmuir, both of General Electric–made much play of serendipity, in the course of arguing against overly rigid research planning.
E Yet what Cannon and Medawar took as a benign (adj.有益的) method, other
scientists found incendiary (adj.煽动性的). To say that science had a significant serendipitous (adj.偶然发现的) aspect was taken by some as dangerous denigration (n.诋毁). If scientific discovery were really accidental, then what was the special basis of expert authority?
F In this connection, the aphorism (n.格言，警句) of choice came from no less an
authority on scientific discovery than Louis Pasteur:\
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mind.\as one is looking for something else, but the ability to notice such events, to see their potential (adj.潜在的) bearing (n.方向，影响) and meaning, to exploit their occurrence and make constructive use of them–these are the results of systematic mental (adj.精神的，头脑的) preparation. What seems like an accident is just another form of expertise. On closer inspection, it is insisted, accident dissolves into sagacity (n.精确地判断).
G In 1936, as a very young man, Merton wrote a seminal essay on \
Unanticipated Consequences of Purposive Social Action.\It is , he argued, the nature of social action that what one intends is rarely what one gets: Intending to provide resources for buttressing Christian religion, the natural philosophers of the Scientific Revolution laid the groundwork for secularism (n.政教分离论); people wanting to be alone with nature in Yosemite Valley wind up crowding one another. We just don't know enough–and we can never know enough–to ensure that the past is an adequate guide to the future: Uncertainty about outcomes, even of our best-laid plans, is endemic. All social action, including that undertaken with the best evidence and formulated according to the most rational criteria, is uncertain in its consequences.
You should spend about 20 minutes on question 28-40, which are based on reading passage 3 on the following pages. Questions 28-33
Reading passage 3 has seven paragraphs, A-G
Choose the correct heading for paragraphs A-F from the list of headings below.
Write the correct number, i-x, in boxes 28-33 on your answer sheet. List of headings i The origin of serendipity ii Horace Walpole's fairy tale iii Arguments against serendipity iv Two basic knowledge in the paradox of scientific discovery v The accidental evidences in and beyond science vi Opponents of authority vii Accident and mental preparation viii Planned research and anticipated outcome ix The optimum balance between the two extremes 28 Paragraph A 29 Paragraph B 30 Paragraph C
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31 Paragraph D 32 Paragraph E 33 Paragraph F
Questions 34-36
Complete the summary below, using NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the Reading Passage for each answer.
Write your answer in boxes 34-36 on your answer sheet.
The word ?serendipity‘ was coined in the writing of 34________ to Horace Mann. He derived it from a 35________, the characters of which were always making fortunate discovery by accident. The stem Serendip was a former name for 36________.
Questions 37-40
Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.
Write the correct letter in boxes 37-40 on your answer sheet.
37 What does ?inductivism? mean in paragraph A? A Observation without anticipation at the beginning. B Looking for what you want in the premise C The expected discovery D The map we pursued
38 Scientific discovery should A be much of accidental aspect B be full of value
C be between the two extremes D be sceptical
39 The writer mentions Luigi Galvani's observation to illustrate A the cruelty of frog's dissection
B the happy accident in scientific discovery C the practice of scientists D the rigid research planning
40 Why does the writer mention the example in Yosemite Valley in paragraph? A To illustrate the importance of a systematic plan
B To illustrate the conflict between reality and expectation C To illustrate the original anticipation D To illustrate the intention of social action
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READING PASSAGE 12 文章背景：
离现在6500万年之久的恐龙时代遭遇了大灭绝从而为新生命的孕育开辟了道路。科学家们对恐龙时代的开始和结束的原因一直没有定论。某位科学家认为恐龙灭绝和铱元素的增多有关系。后来通过研究恐龙的脚印发现恐龙的灭绝是一个很快的过程。应该和食物的大量减少有关，进一步推测出当时有小行星撞击地球改变了恐龙的进化从而导致恐龙时代的终结。
Terminated! Dinosaur Era!
A The age of dinosaurs, which ended with the cataclysmic bang of a meteor impact 65 million years ago, many also have begun with one. Researchers found recently the first direct, though tentative, geological evidence of a meteor impact 200 million years ago, coinciding with amass extinction that eliminated half of the major groups of life and opened the evolutionary door for what was then a relatively small group of animals: dinosaurs.
B The cause and timing of the ascent of dinosaurs has have been much debated. It has been impossible to draw any specific conclusions because the transition between the origin of dinosaurs and their ascent to dominance has not been sampled in detail. ―There is probably a geochemical signature of something important happening, probably an asteroid impact, just before the time in which familiar dinosaur-dominated communities appear,‖ said Dr. Paul E. Olsen, a professor of earth and environmental sciences at Columbia University‘s Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory in Palisades,N.Y.
C Olsen and his colleagues studied vertebrate fossils from 80 sites in four different ancient rift basins, part of a chain of rifts that formed as North America began to split apart from the supercontinent that existed 230-190 million years ago. In the layer of rock corresponding to the extinction, the scientists found elevated amounts of the rare element iridium (元素，铱). A precious metal belonging to the platinum group of elements, iridium is more abundant in meteorites than in rocks.
D On earth, a similar spike of iridium in 65 million-year-old rocks gave rise in the 1970s to the theory that a meteor caused the demise of the dinosaurs. That theory remained controversial for years until it was corroborated by other evidence and the impact site was found off the Yucatan Peninsula. Scientists will need to examine the new iridium anomaly similarly. The levels are only about one-tenth as high as those found at the later extinction. That could mean that the meteor was smaller or contained less iridium or that a meteor was not involved-iridium can also come from the Earth‘s interior, belched out by volcanic eruptions. Dr. Michael J. Benton, a professor of vertebrate paleontology at the University of Bristol in England, described the data as ―the first reasonably convincing evidence of an iridium spike‖.
E The scientists found more evidence of rapid extinction in a database of 10,000 fossilized footprints in former lake basins from Virginia to Nova Scotia. Although
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