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individual species cannot usually be identified solely from their footprints—the track of a house cat, for example, resemble those of a baby tiger—footprints are much more plentiful than fossil bones and can provide a more complete picture of the types of animals walking around. ―It makes it very easy for us to ell the very obvious signals of massive fauna change,‖ Dr. Olsen said. Because the sediment piles up quickly in lake basins, the researchers were able to assign a date to each footprint, based on the layer of rock where it was found. They determined that the mix of animals walking across what is now the East Coast of North America changed suddenly about 200 million years ago.
F The tracks of several major reptile groups continue almost up to the layer of rock marking the end of the Triassic geologic period (三叠纪) 202 million years ago, and then vanish in younger layers from the Jurassic Period (白垩纪). ―I think the footprint methodology is very novel and very exciting,‖ said Dr. Peter D. Ward, a professor of geology at the University of Washington. He called the data ―very required more research. Last year, researchers led by Dr. Ward reported that the types of carbon in rock changed abruptly at this time, indicationg a sudden dying off of plants over less than 0,000 years. The footprint research reinforces the hypothesis that the extinction was sudden.
G Several groups of dinosaurs survived that extinction, and the footprints show that new groups emerged soon afterward. Before the extinction, about one-fifth of the footprints were left by dinosaur; after the extinction, more than half were from dinosaurs. The changes, the researchers said, occurred within 30,000 years—a geological blink of an eye. The scientists postulate that the asteroid or comet impact and the resulting death of Triassic competitors allowed a few groups of carnivorous dinosaurs to evolve in size very quickly and dominate the top of the terrestrial food chain globally.
H Among the creatures that disappeared in the extinction were the dominant predators at the time: 15-foot-long rauisuchians (劳鳄目) with great knife-like teeth and phytosaurs (植蜥类) that resembled large crocodiles. Dinosaurs first evolved about 230 million years ago, but they were small, competing in a crowded ecological niche. Before the extinction 200 million years ago, the largest of the meat-eating dinosaurs were about the size of large dogs. Not terribly impressive.‖ Dr. Olsen said. The dinosaurs quickly grew. The toe-to-heel length of the foot of a meat eater from the Jurassic period was on average 20 percent longer than its Triassic ancestor. Larger feet can carry bigger bodies; the scientists infer the dinosaurs doubted in weight, eventually evolving into fearsome velociraptors (迅龙), tyrannosaurus rex (霸王龙) and other large carnivorous dinosaurs.
I The spurt in evolution is similar to the rise of mammals after the extinction of dinosaurs. Mammals, no larger than small dogs during the age of dinosaurs, diversified into tigers, elephants, whales and people after the reptilian competition died away. The success of the dinosaurs after the Triassic-Jurassic extinction may be why they did not survive the second extinction.‖ Small animals always do better in catastrophic situations, Dr. Olsen said, because they can survive on smaller amounts of food.‖ He also pointed out that scientists now believe the small dinosaurs did
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survive. ―We just call them birds,‖ he said.
Question 1-6
Use the information in the passage to match the people (listed A-C) with opinions or deeds (listed 1-6) below.
Write the appropriate letter (A-C) in boxes 1-6 on your answer sheet.
A Paul Olsen B Michael Benton C Peter Ward
1 Large animals are in a disadvantageous position when disasters happen.
2 Radical changes in carbon types are related to massive extinction of vegetation. 3 The changes in earth‘s vegetation become easier to identify.
4 Geochemical evidence suggests an asteroid impact before dinosaurs appeared. 5 Footprint study is a way of research.
6 Persuasive clues of an iridium spike were discovered for the first time.
Question 7-13
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage? In boxes 7-13 on your answer sheet write
TRUE if the statement is true FALSE if the statement is false NOT GIVEN if the information is not given in the passage ⒎ The rare element, iridium, was presented both on earth and in meteorites. ⒏ The meteor impact theory had been suspected before the discovery of the impact site and other supporting evidence. ⒐ Footprints are of little value in proving information, in comparison to fossil bones, because individual species cannot be identified with footprints. ⒑ According to scientists, the translation to a dinosaur-dominated era took place very quickly by geological time scales. ⒒ The creatures that disappeared in the extinction were dominantly the 15-foot-long rauisuchians and large crocodiles. ⒓ Tyrannosaurus rex was larger in body size than other carnivorous dinosaurs. ⒔ Large dinosaurs died out but small ones evolved and competed with birds and mammals.
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READING PASSAGE 13 文章背景：
电视成瘾。人们每天用来看电视的时间多的惊人。在发达国家每人每天要花3个小时的时间看电视，几乎是他们业余时间的一半。调查发现，相对于运动和读书之后带给人们的快乐而言，看电视之后人们的心情不会好转甚至会更糟。人们越在电视机前的时间长，就越不愿意离开它。研究发现人们之所以这么爱看电视，并非是因为电视节目的内容，而是因为看电视的形式吸引着人们。
TV ADDICTION
A The amount of time people spend watching television is astonishing,On average,individuals in the industrialised world devote three hours a day to the pursuit -fully half of their leisure time,and more than on any single activity save work and sleep.At this rate,someone who lives to 75 would spend nine years in front of the tube.To some commentators,this devotion means simply that people enjoy TV and make a conscious decision to watch it.But if that is the whole story,why do so many people experience misgivings about how much they view?In Gallup polls in 1992 and 1999,two out of five adult respondents and seven out of 10 teenagers said they spent too much time watching TV.Other surveys have consistently shown that roughly 10 percent of adults call themselves TV addicts.
B To study people's reaction to TV,researchers have undertaken laboratory experiments in which they have monitored the brain waves(using an electroencephalograph ,or EEG) to track behaviour and emotion in the normal course of life,as opposed to the artificial conditions of the lab.Participants carried beeper,and we signaled them six to eight times a day,at a random,over the period of a week ,whenever they heard the deep,they wrote down what they were doing and how they were feeling using a standardized scorecard.
C As one might expect,people who were watching TV when we beeped them reported and passive.The EEG studies similarly show less mental stimulation,as measured by alpha brain-wave production,during viewing than during reading.What is more surprising is that the sense of relaxation ends when the set is turned off ,but the feeling of passivity and lowered alertness continue.Survey participants say they have more difficulty concentrating after viewing than before.In contrast,they rarely indicate such difficulty after reading.After playing sports or engaging in hobbies ,people report improvements in mood.After watching TV,people's moods are about the same or worse than before.That may be because viewer's vague learned sense that they will feel less relaxed if they stop viewing .So they tend not to turn the set off.Viewing begets more viewing which is the same as the experience of habit-forming drugs.Thus,the irony of TV:people watch a great deal longer they plan to ,even though prolonged viewing is less rewarding.In our ESM studies the longer people sat in front of the set,the less satisfaction they said derived from it.For some,a twinge of unease or guilt that they they aren't doing something more productive may also accompany and
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depreciate the enjoyment of prolonged viewing.Researchers in Japan,the U.K and the U.S have found that this guilt occurs much more among middle-class viewers than among less affluent ones.
D What is it about TV that has such a hold on us? In part,the attraction seems to spring from our biological ' orienting response ' .First described by Ivan Pavlov in 1927,the orienting response in our instinctive visual or auditory reaction to any sudden or novel stimulus.It is part of our evolutionary heritage,a built-in sensitivity to movement and potential predatory threats.In 1986 Byron Reeves of Stanford University ,Esther Thorson of the University of Missouri and their colleagues began to study whether the simple formal features of television-cuts,edits,zooms,pans
Sudden noises-activate the orienting response,thereby keeping attention on the screen.By watching how brain waves were affected by formal features,the researchers concluded that thease stylistic tricks can indeed trigger involutionary significance of detecting movement......It is the form,not the content,of television that is unique,'
E The natural attraction to television's sound and light starts very early in life,Dafna Lemish of Tel Aviu University has described babies at six to eight weeks attending to television.We have observed slightly older infants who,when lying on their backs on the floor,crane their necks around 180 degrees to catch what light through yonder window breaks.The inclination suggest deeply rooted the orienting response is.
F The Experience Sampling Method permitted us to look at most every domain of everyday life:working,eating,reading,talking to friends,playing a sport ,and so on.We found that heavy viewers report feeling significantly more anxious and less happy than light viewers do in unstructured situations,such as doing nothing,daydreaming or waiting in line.The difference widens when the viewer is alone.Subsequently,Robert D. McIlwraith of the University of Mantitoba extensively studied those who called themselves TV addicts on surveys.On a measure called the Short Imaginal Processess Inventory(SIPI),he found that the self described addicts are more easily bored and distract themselves from unpleasant thoughts and to fill time.Other studies over the years have shown that heavy viewers are less likely to participate in community activities and sports and are more likely to be obese than moderate viewers or non-viewers.
G More than 25 years ago psychologist Tannis M.MacBeth Williams of the University of British Columbia studied a moutain commutity that had no television until cable finally arrived.Over time,both adults and children in the town became less creative in problem solving ,less able to persevere at tasks,and less tolerant of unstructured time. H Nearly 40 years ago Gary A.Steiner of the University of Chicago collected fascinating individual accounts of families whose set had broken.In experiments ,families have volunteered or been paid to stop viewing ,typically for a week or a month.Some fought ,verbally and physically.In a review of these cold-turkey studies,Charles Winick of the City University of New York concluded:' The first three or four days for most persons were the worst ,even in many homes where viewing was minimal and where there were other ongoing activites.In over half of all the households,during these few days of loss,the regular routines were disrupted ,family members had difficulties in dealing with the newly available
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time,anxiety and adaption were expressed.....By the second week,a move toward adaption to the situation was common.' Unforunately,researchers have yet to flesh out of these anecdotes:no one has systematically gathered statistics on the prevalence of these withdrawal symptoms.
I Even though TV does seem to meet the criteria for substance dependence ,not all researchers would go so far as to call TV addictive. McILwraith said in 1998 that's displacement of other activites by television may be socially significant but still fall short of the clinical requirement of significant impairment.' He argued that a new category of 'TV addiction' may not be necessary if heavy viewing stems from conditions such as depression and social phobia.Nevertheless,whether or not we formally diagnose someone as TV-dependent,millions of people sense that they can not readily control the amount of television they watch.
You should spend about 20 minutes on question 14-26,which are based on reading passage 2 on the following pages.
Question 14-18
Do the following statements agree with the claims of the writer in Reading Passage?
In boxes 14-18 on your answer sheet,write True If the statement is true False If the statement is false 14 Study shows that males are more likely to be addicted to TV than the females Not Given If the information is not given in the passage15 Greater improvements in mood are experienced after watching TV than playing sports. 16 TV addiction works in similar ways are drugs.
17 It is reported that people's satisfaction is in proportion to the time they spend watching TV.
18 Middle-class are more likely to feel guilty about watching TV than the poor.
Questions 19-23
Look at the following researchers (Questions 19-23) and the list of statements below. Match each researcher with correct statements.
Write the correct letter A-H in boxes 19-23 on your answer sheets. 19 Byron Reeves and Esther Thorson 20 Dafna Lemish
21 Robert D.McIlwraith
22 Tannis M.MacBeth Williams 23 Charles Winick A. Audiences would get hypnotized from viewing too much television. B. People have been sensitive to the TV signals since a younger age. C. People are less likely to accomplish their work with television. I will persist until I succeed! D.A handful of studies have attempted to study other types of media addiction. E. The addictive power of television could probably minimize the problems. F. Various media formal characters stimulate people's reaction on the screen. 45