original. A communicative translation works on a narrow basis. It is \订做的，特制的；样式和裁制讲究的；合适的\读者群, does one job, fulfils a particular function. A semantic translation is wide and universal. In attempting to respond to the author, living or dead, it addresses itself to all readers, all who have ears to hear, or just to Stendhal's \
My last comparison will take metaphor as its touchstone试金石；检验标准.
I here propose to abandon the conventional clumsy I. A. Richards's terminology of 传播媒介，工具，手段vehicle/tenor趋向；要旨，大意；男高音 and to use my own, viz.（＝namely，即，也就是 metaphor/object/image/sense. Thus in a \smile\(vehicle) is \
\but more fossilized变成化石的；僵化的，老化的；落伍的，过时的). Note this is a stock metaphor which normally has a narrow band一帮，一伙，一群；乐团，乐队；带，条 of \(e.g. look-mood-disposition).
Metaphor, as Dagut (1976) has pointed out in a brilliant article, has been much neglected in the literature. I propose to discuss
three types of metaphor: dead (fossilized), standard (stock) and original (creativity). (The types are clearly distinguishable at their centres, but they merge with each other at the periphery外围，边缘；不重要的部分.) All languages consist of a stock of more or less fossilized metaphors. Many new words are metaphors. One has only to compare the collocations for the main parts of the body (say Fuβ, pied, foot) to see that even in their commonest uses they are not all inter-translatable. (Further, their precise physical areas物理领域 do not coincide.) In some cases the translator has to convert from a dead metaphor (F: franc) to a transparent透明的；明显的；简明的，易懂的 one (\前额，前部\Though there is often an area of choice, there is not usually a distinction差别；区别；殊殒，荣誉；优秀，卓越 here between communicative and semantic translation, although one could for instance maintain that figure is a more semantic translation of \脸，面貌 or face. Normally dead metaphors, being furthest removed from their source, are the easiest metaphors to translate, and their figurative aspect is ignored in SL and TL (e.g. ervagen=ponder) unless it is 苏醒，复苏；复兴，重新流行；恢复生机revived by an extended image (e.g. %up估量，权衡，仔细考虑；称重量 in my personal scale\
There are five possible procedures in translating standard, i.e. more or less common, metaphors, which may be simple (one word) or extended (idioms). In making a decision, the translator has to weigh each option against the relative frequency (and, therefore, naturalness) and currency of the TL equivalent within the appropriate language variety品种，各类；变化，多样化. The first solution is to translate by a metaphor using the same or a similar image (vehicle) (\the secnond is to translate with a different image that has the same sense (avoir d'autres chats a fouetter: \fry\直喻，明喻an expression comparing one thing with another, always including the words `as' or `like'; the fourth is to qualify the simile with the sense (c'est un lion=\which in communictive translation may be advisable, if the metaphor is obscure; the fifth is to translate as much as possible of the sense behind the image, the sense being the common area between the metaphor's object and the image, as seen by the writer and interpreted by the translator. The question of whether to use semantic or communicative translation will arise only when the translator is in doubt about which solution to adopt. Thus, (pace Reiss) a \
translated as une tempete dans un verre d'eau or ein Sturm im Wasserglas, whatever the context, as long as the three idioms remain equally current within that context. Communicative translation may prefer \大惊小怪，小题大作 about nothing\molehill不重要之物\too well-worn用旧了的；陈腐的；平凡的，普通的. There is also a case for eliminating a few cliches 化装，假装masquerading as metaphor or idioms in a poorly written text requiring communicative treatment. Further, the decision whether to translate \（黄瓜）从容不迫的，泰然自若的\贬低/抑的，轻蔑的) or avec un sang-froid parfait (imperturbable沉着的，冷静的, superbe, etc.) may depend on whether a semantic or communicative translation respectively is more appropriate. Creative metaphor, as Dagut, quoting Richards (1965), points out, is \有权采取行动、任命的；构成的，构造的；本质的，要素的 form of language\commoner phenomenon than those who think of it as the preserve of poets might imagine, and it is often the most accurate and concise descriptive instrument in language, as opposed to mathematics. Notoriously, translators know that it is
found most commonly in the financial columns of newspapers: \烽火；灯塔，信号灯...The ticket on which the town sells itself...the start of the slow clamber攀爬，攀登 back, or a brief holiday window between two years?...no check in the push to sell long gilts金边证券（单，镀金）...the new long tap less attractive...Mercifully仁慈地，宽厚地；幸亏 (cf. hopefully, thankfully, gratefully)\(Guardian, 30 Dec. 1976). Dagut also quotes from a recent issue of Time magazine: \简陋木屋，棚屋；小室，间v.同居shacks off her gloves and 桶；枪管，笔杆barrels into battle.\phrases will depend first on whether this figurative language is equally appropriate in the TL, and, secondly, on how important and expressive表情丰富的，意味深长的；有表现力的, in the translator's opinion, the image is semantically (if it is not important, he will translate it communicatively.)
Assuming that a creative metaphor is worth translating, there is no question that the more original and surprising it is (and therefore the more remote from the national culture), the easier it will be to translate, since in its essence it will be remote from common semantic as well as cultural associations. For this reason, Kloepfer's (1967) dictum格言；声明 so disapprovingly