第四章 一切险承保风险与局限,近因原则
1 什么是一切险(all risks)? 1.1 一切险的承保范围与局限 1.2 一切险的局限:肯定会发生的风险 1.3 加保可能会发生的风险的做法 2 一切险的举证责任
2.1 列名风险的受保人举证责任先例:The ―Popi M‖
2.2一切险货物保险举证先例:British and Foreign Marine Insurance Co Ltd. v. Gaunt 2.3 以往运输没有发生同类损坏作为证明是意外造成的先例:Noten B.V. v Harding 2.4 保险人以除外风险为由拒赔有举证责任 3 无可避免损失之短缺
3.1货物短缺案例之一:Dodwell & Co Limited v. British Dominions General Insurance Company Limited
3.2 货物短缺案例之二:Maigen & Co v. National Benefit Assurance Company 3.3 货物短缺案例之三:Monchy v. Phoenix Insurance Company of Hartford & Another 3.4 货物短缺案例之四:Coven SPA v. Hong Kong Chinese Insurance Co. 3.5 货物发热案例:Soya G..m.b.H. v. White 4 近因(proximate cause) 4.1 以前判例有关损失的近因是在时间方面
4.2 后来判例有关损失的近因是在重要性与有效性方面 4.3 根据不同案件的事实找出近因与大致分类
4.3.1.前因造成无可避免损失的案件(inevitable cases)
4.3.2. 前因激发或导致后来的原因而造成损失的案件(―weakening‖ cases)
4.3.3. 前因诱发受保人改变做法并遇到后来的原因造成损失的案件(―state of affairs‖ cases)
4.4 以明示条文排除近因原则的适用 4.5 同时有多个近因(concurrent causes) 4.5.1多个近因都属于承保的列名风险
4.5.2多个近因有一个是承保的列名风险,但其他的既没有说是承保也没有说是排除 4.5.3多个近因有一个是承保的列名风险,另有一个是被排除的列名风险 5 总结
第1~3条:承保风险(Risks Covered)
Risks
1. This insurance covers all risks of loss of or damage to the subject-matter insured except as excluded by the provisions of Clauses 4, 5, 6 and 7 below. General Average
2. This insurance covers general average and salvage charges, adjusted or determined according to the contract of carriage and/or the governing law and practice, incurred to avoid or in connection with the avoidance of loss from any cause except those excluded in Clauses 4, 5, 6 and 7 below. ―Both to Blame Collision Clause‖
3. This insurance indemnifies the Assured, in respect of any risk insured herein, against liability incurred under any Both to Blame Collision Clause in the contract of carriage. In the event of any claim by carriers under the said Clause, the Assured agree to notify the Insurers who shall have the right, at their own cost and expense, to defend the Assured against such claim.
承保风险 风险
1. 本保险承保保险标的(货物)之损失或损害的一切风险,但不包括下
列第4、5、6和7条规定的除外责任。 共同海损
2. 本保险承保根据运输合同和/或准据法和惯例理算或确定的共同海损和
救助费用,其产生是为了避免任何原因造成的损失或与避免任何原因造成的损失有关,但此种原因须不是本保险第4、5、6和7条除外的危险。
“双方有责碰撞条款” 3. 本保险赔偿被保人就下述承保的风险根据运输合同中的―双方有责碰
撞条款‖的责任。在承运人根据该条款提出索赔的情况下,被保人同意通知保险人,保险人有权自己承担费用为被保人对此种索赔提出抗辩。
这一条文措辞上2009年版本与1982年的协会货物条文相比没有作出改变,但由于除外责任有所改变(第4条至第7条),故保险人的责任范围就实际上有了变化。它基本上就是把这份保险合约承保的风险分3条不同的条文去说明。在本章,会去针对的只是第1条一切险,它针对的是被承保的货物受到实质损失或者损坏(physical loss or damage)。至于承保货物受到非实质损失或者损坏(non- physical loss or damage),也就是上述第2 条与第3条的条文,虽然也被承保,但会在本书第5章去进一步解释。
1 什么是一切险(all risks)?
一切险在海上货物运输保险是一个比较新的做法,虽然这种保险已经存在了好几百年的时间。众所周知,以前的货物保险与船舶保险是走在一起的,根据的就是Lloyd‘s S.G Policy,会是在很早没有通讯的年代船上的货物所有人也就是船东,或是货物所有人就在船上押运并到了港口就进行贸易。
Lloyd‘s S.G Policy所承保的只是针对性的列名风险(named perils),例如是海上风险(peril of the sea),火灾(fire),外来的暴力盗窃(thieves),船员的不法行为(barratry),等。除了水险外,也包括了一些与战争有关的列名风险,例如是军舰(men of war),敌人(enemies),等。
到了第一次世界大战(1914年-1918年)结束后,一切险开始被接受。但一些传统的保险人还是不愿意承保一切险,而一切险的保险通常是以经纪人的附加条款(broker‘s clause)的形式去承保。这到了1950年左右,伦敦市场才感觉到有必要把一切险的保险合约规范化,这导致了在1951年首次出现“协会货物条文(一切险)”(Institute Cargo Clause [All Risks])。
有关一切险所承保的范围,最早的先例是Jacob v Caviller (1902) 7 Com. Cas. 116,该保险合约有一条附加条款说:―The Insurance is against all risks, including mortality from any cause, jettison, and washing overboard…‖。
英国法院判―一切险‖(all risk)这一个措辞与Lloyd‘s S.G Policy中一连串的列名风险后的结束语―all other perils, losses and misfortunes‖是两码事。有了一切险的措辞,就再也不需要去加上承保的个别列名风险。
1.1 一切险的承保范围与局限
接下去的介绍先例是Schloss Bros v Stevens (1908) 2 KB 665,也是一样的判法。Walton大法官说一切险这一个措辞是去承保所有在运输途中发生意外所蒙受的风险(“all losses by any accidental cause of any kind occurring during the transit”)。就这句话而言,有说明风险必须是意外所造成。
再接下去就是著名的贵族院先例British & Foreign Marine Insurance Company Limited v Gaunt (1921) 2 AC 41,该先例同意Schloss Bros v Stevens的判法,并明确规定了一切险的承保范围与不承保的范围。Sumner勋爵是这样说:
―There are, of course, limits to ?all risks?. They are risks and risks insured against. Accordingly the expression does not cover inherent vice or mere wear and tear…it covers a risk, not a certainty; it is something which happens to the subject-matter from without, not the natural behavior of that subject-matter, being what it is, in the circumstances under which it is carried. Nor is it a loss which the assured brings about by his own act, for then he has not merely exposed the goods to the chance of injury, he has injured them himself.‖。
在上述的判决中可看到普通法有一个默示地位就是一切险是不承保一些非意外造成与肯定会发生的风险,以及受保人的货方自己导致的损失。在比较近期的另一个先例Mayban General Assurance Bhd v. Alstom Power Plants Ltd (2004) 2 Lloyd‘s Rep 609中,也有同样的说法。Moore-Bick大法官谈到协会货物条文(一切险)承保的风险十分广泛,但还是有3个限制。第一个就是被保险人要证明这个损失是一个意外,而不是肯定会发生的后果;第二个就是被保险人不需要进一步说明这一个意外到底是怎样的意外与它的本质;第三个就是一切险也不承保自然损耗或内在缺陷,这基本上还是与第一个后果一致。Moore-Bick大法官说:
―The expression ?all risks‘ is used in policies of insurance as a convenient way of encompassing all insurable risks to which the property in question may be exposed without attempting to identify them individually. The contract nonetheless remains one under which the insurer accepts the risk of loss occurring through the occurrence of some peril acting on the property insured. A number of consequences follow from this. The first is that in order to recover under the policy the insured must prove that the loss was caused by an accident or casualty of some kind. Insurers accept the risk, although the insured must prove a loss by an accident of some kind, it is not necessary for him to go further and establish the exact nature of the accident by which it occurred. The third is that the policy does not cover the insured against loss due to wear and tear or the inherent vice of the thing insured, whether that loss was bound to occur or was fortuitous in the sense that its occurrence depended on the particular circumstances to which the goods happened to be exposed in the course of the voyage.‖
1.2 一切险的局限:肯定会发生的风险
首先简单介绍一下什么是肯定会发生的风险,马上想到的是一些正常的损耗(ordinary wear and tear),例如钢板因腐蚀而导致破裂。但货物运输不像船舶保险,通常承保时间也就是运输的时间不会很长,估计这种情况很少会出现。另外想到的就是包装不当或不足(improper or insufficient package),因为这是受保人自己导致的损失。在严重的情况下,客观地去看会是认为在海上运输过程中会肯定出事,而且不必要有外来风险去导致。正如F.W Berk v Style & Co
Ltd (1955) 2 Lloyd‘s Rep 382,涉及的货物是袋装硅藻土(Kieselguhr),但包装的纸袋质量很差,结果在卸货的时候有严重的破裂需要重新包装,从而产生施救费用。Sellers大法官判这笔施救费用不能向保险人在一切险的保险合约中取回,因为―纸袋是肯定不能把里面的货物包住”(it could be said to be certain that they could not hold their contents)。
但什么是肯定会发生的损失并不是一个容易作出的结论,所以在现实中也经常会带来争议。例如在著名的世纪盗窃与鬼船(phantom ship)案例之The ―Salem‖(1983) 1 Lloyd‘s Rep 342中,涉及了希腊船东去买了―Salem‖这艘老龄超级油轮,去市场出租并揽了一票货,从科威特装20万吨原油去欧洲。但事实上该批骗徒已经与当时实施种族隔离的南非政府(所以受到联合国的禁运)达成买卖协议,把―Salem‖船上的一票原油卖给南非。结果在原来的航次半途,船舶绕航去德尔班把该票货非法卸下。无辜货方向保险公司提出的索赔中,其中的一个争议就是该票货物在科威特还没有装上船之前,也就是风险还没有开始生效(risks never attach),该票货物的命运就已经是肯定会失去。但上诉庭与贵族院都不接受,认为在那时候还是不能说死这一个世纪盗窃肯定会成功。其中Kerr大法官是这样说:
―Mr. Hobhouse (保险人的代表大律师) submitted that the proximate cause of the loss of the entire cargo, both of the bulk which was discharged at Durban and of the remainder which went down with the ship, was the fraudulent plan of the conspirators throughout, even before the loading of the cargo…. In substance this submission appears to entail the conclusion that there was already an actual total loss as soon as the cargo was loaded at Mina, because the cargo-owners were then already irretrievably deprived of it…I cannot accept this; there was then nit yet any irretrievable deprivation or loss.‖。
从The “Salem”先例看来,在风险开始生效前已经可以肯定一个损失一定会产生的情况会是微乎其微,因为在之后的运输变数太多。例如,有内在缺陷(inherent vice)的货物就已经很难去肯定。比方说一票劣质煤碳,在一个特定的航次中发生自燃几乎是肯定。但这会有各种变数例如不同的船舶装运或在不同的季节运输,或是在某一个航次中所遇到的实际情况例如是气温比较低,都会导致自燃可能会发生可能不会发生。所以,内在缺陷是不能被视为是肯定的损失,虽然在British & Foreign Marine Insurance Company Limited v Gaunt案例中说明这也是不承保的。但由于有内在缺陷的货物很多,而且通常也是一种风险(因为不是肯定会发生),所以保险人通常会接受加保,例如保险合约中加入“发热、出汗与自燃条款”(HSSC[Heating Sweating and Spontaneous Combustion] Clause):Soya G.m.b.H. v. White (1983) 1 Lloyd‘s Rep 122。