力,所以明知道拖带有危险,特别该避难港口的航道航行是不容易,但没有其他更好的办法去处理。结果船舶果然在航道搁浅而造成船底损坏甚至全损,也是同样的道理就是水雷击中就是整个损失的致命一击。
4.3.2. 前因激发或导致后来的原因而造成损失的案件(“weakening” cases)
这一个类别的前因谈不上是致命的一击,甚至不是它造成最后的损失,但它导致了后来的原因更容易出现或激发了后来的原因,而后来的原因造成了损失。这种案件要去找出近因是最不容易,也最富争议性。它也可以以因果链(chain of causation)或因果关系(causation)去解释,就是前因被后来的原因打断了因果关系(novus actus interveniens或intervening act)。这是与侵权、违法与违约的因果关系是类似:Lloyds TSB General Insurance Holdings Ltd v. Lloyds Bank Group Insurance Co Ltd (2001) Lloyd‘s Rep IR 224。显然,在后来出现的原因(通常是人为疏忽或故意行为与不平常事情的发生)应该是独立而且程度上比较严重才会导致打断因果关系,变成了它才是近因,而前因只变成了远因。找出近因在侵权的范畴更是重要与复杂,正如Hart教授与Honore教授所著的《Causation in the law》第133页所说:
―… we are concerned to inquire how far in the law of tort, when causal connection between a wrongful act and harm is an element in responsibility, the decisions of the courts have been controlled by the principle that this connection is negative if the factors required, in addition to the wrongful act, for the production of the harm include a voluntary human action or an abnormal occurrence. Our conclusion is that this principle has been applied over a very wide area of the law of tort, sufficient perhaps to enable us to speak of a traditional doctrine.‖
这些案件是很多,例如在Lawrence Aberdein (1821) 5 B & Ald 107,由于船舶在海上遇上风浪,导致船上的货物(牲畜)因受惊吓互相践踏而受伤,判近因是海上风险。另在Bondrett v. Hentingg (1816) Holt NP 149,涉及了船舶搁浅(这是被承保的海上风险),但给了沿岸的盗贼机会上船强抢东西,这被判近因是海上风险而不是盗贼。
在财产保险,有案例判空袭期间有人趁机偷东西,判的近因不是空袭而是偷盗行为:Winicofsky v. Army & Navy Insurance (1919) 35 TLR 283。同样的理念下,一场火灾给暴徒抢劫的机会,判的近因是暴徒的不法行为而不是火灾:Marsden v. City & County Insurance (1865) LR 1 CP 232。另在一个建筑物起火并带来爆炸,判是爆炸才是损失的近因:Everett v. London Assurance (1865) 19 CBNS 126, Stanley v. Western Insurance Co (1868) LR 3 Ex 71, Re Hooley Hill
Rubber & Chemical Co Ltd. (1920) 1 KB 257, Curtis & Harvey (Canada) Ltd v. North British & Mercantile Insurance Co (1921) 1 AC 303。
一种情况会不明朗的是:船舶搁浅或者碰撞显然是毫无争议的海上风险(perils of sea),是传统与最典型的承保风险。但如果船舶搁浅或碰撞是由于船员疏忽,特别是很严重的疏忽,这会否导致近因变了是船员疏忽?照理说海上风险与船员疏忽在目前的船舶保险条文中都属于承保的风险,不必去区分。但由于船员疏忽是规定在2003年《国际船舶保险条款》的2.2.3条,而在2.2条所承保的各项风险是受到但书的约束,该但书是说―除非此种损失或损害并非由于受保人、船东或管理人克尽职责所致‖(provided such loss or damage has not resulted from want of due diligence by the Assured, Owners or Managers);而2.1条项下承保的海上风险是没有但书的约束。所以在有一些案件涉及了船东有否克尽职责的时候还是要找出哪一个是近因导致了损失。但通常是没有这种争议,因为在1906年《英国海上保险法》之Section 55(2)(a)有规定是在这种情况下,即使是船员疏忽所导致也不受影响,说:―The insurer…is liable for any loss proximately caused by a peril insured against, even though the loss would not have happened but for the misconduct or negligence of the master or crew‖。1906年的立法有这样的默示地位受的影响可能是在时间上船员疏忽是远因,搁浅或碰撞是近因。但由于有这样的默示地位,所以在保险的案件中,就会与租约或者提单的案件得出不同的近因。前者是海上风险,而后者就会是船员疏忽。
还有一种情况也是不明朗,就是在人身伤亡保险,受害人遇上了事故而带来自然的后果(natural cause)。典型就是受害人遇上了意外,例如是遇上车祸住进了医院而导致自然的后果是感染了肺炎,这就带来了车祸是近因或者肺炎是近因?如果肺炎导致了该受害人的死亡,可否说肺炎中断了因果链?在大量的案件中,都会是判近因就是车祸:Fitton v Accidental Insurance Co (1864) 17 CBN 122, Isitt v. Passengers Assurance Co (1889) 22 QBD 504, Mardorf v. Accident Insurance Co (1903) 1 KB 584, Re Etheringron and Lancashire and Yorkshire Accident Insurance Co (1909) 1 KB 591, Smith v. Cornhill Insurance (1938) 3 All ER 145, Cawley v. National Employers‘ Accident (1885) 1 TLR 255。
但如果换了是受害人本身就有一个自然的缺陷,这导致了他遇上意外,这一来到底哪一个是近因呢?例如体质很容易晕倒的人在突然晕倒后掉到河里被淹死或被火车轧过导致死亡,或者是盲人在过马路的时候被汽车撞倒,到底近因是受害人本身体质上的缺陷还是意外?通常情况下法院会判意外是近因,这些案例有:Winspear v. Accident Insurance (1880) 6 QBD 42, Reynolds v. Accidental Insurance Co (1870) 22 LT 820, Lawrence v. Accidental Insurance Co (1882) 7 QBD 216。总的说是涉及人身伤亡的案件,会有感觉好像是法院同情受害人去归咎属
于承保范围内的意外判为是损害的近因,因为受害人在意外才会获得保险的赔付。
4.3.3. 前因诱发受保人改变做法并遇到后来的原因造成损失的案件(“state of affairs” cases)
第三种情况是一种前因本身并没有造成任何的损失,只不过是有了这一个前因,诱使(induce)受保人改变主意采取了另外一种行为,而在实施这种行为的过程中,后来的风险出现并导致了损失。在这种情况下,通常都会是认定后来风险是损失的近因,因为前因本身是没有导致损失,而改变为另一种行为通常被视为是中断因果链。举例说,如果一艘船舶在被警告要航行的水域有海盗出没,因为害怕而更改航线,结果在新的航线上因为风暴导致全损,则该全损会被认定为是海上风险导致,与海盗风险无关。这判法案件有不少,涉及是在世界大战期间改变航线为了逃避敌方军舰或潜艇,但后来遇上了海上风险:The Coxwold (1942) AC 691; Moor Line v King and United Kingdom War Risks Association (1920) 4 L1 LR 286; British Steamship Co v. R (1921) 1 AC 99; Green v. British Indian Steam Navigation Co (1921) 1 AC 99; Yorkshire Dale SS Co v. Minister of War Transport (1942) AC 691; Liverpool & London War Risks v. Ocean SS Co (1948) AC 243。
同样道理,因为担心被捕获而放弃航次导致损失的近因也不能被认定为是捕获。如果是机场被入侵的军队占领,地面上的飞机没有被开走,之后被解放战争中的炮弹击毁,这击毁的近因不能被认定为是最初入侵军队的占领,因为占领与飞机的击毁之间并没有必然的关系。
4.4 以明示条文排除近因原则的适用
近因原则的默示的法律地位在上述介绍过,但在现实中保险人会希望在不同的风险会去更广泛的承保或排除,就只能通过明示条文去超越默示地位。举例说,在协会货物保险条文之4.7条,条文是去排除核武器的风险。由于保险人惧怕核武器/装置的杀伤力太大与影响深远,所以不希望只是依赖近因原则的默示法律地位,而是去说明损失只要是直接或间接由于核武器/装置引起就被排除在外。而―直接或间接导致‖一词可以说是在海上保险中含义最广泛的用词,该条文为:
―In no case shall this insurance cover ---
4.7 loss damage or expense directly or indirectly caused by or arising from the use of any weapon or device employing atomic or nuclear fission and/or fusion or other
like reaction or radioactive force or matter.‖
另一个极端是以明示条文限制近因原则(proximate cause)的适用,即规定只有承保的风险是损失发生的唯一(solely)、绝对(exclusively)与直接(directly)原因的情况下,受保人才可以得到赔偿。这里可以介绍香港的先例Vastgrand Industrial Ltd v. Hong Kong and Shanghai Insurance Co Ltd (2002) HKEC 494,案情涉及原告投保的保险合约规定是只承保台风与风暴造成的损失,后来有了很大的风暴,这风暴导致珠江水位大涨,原告的工厂也因此而被淹。作为被告的保险人否认自己有责任,并争辩说在洪水前几天,风暴已经减弱。法院的观点是该损失是在承保的范围内,并说直接原因不必是最重要的原因,只要是重大的原因造成损失就已经足够。这样看来,这种方法大致是与近因原则是相同的。
在货物保险的条文中还会有其他明示条文试图去改变近因原则,但许多是效力有疑问。这里还存在一个问题就是如果去放宽,是要去放宽到什么程度?而正如前面介绍过的,一个人的出生也可以说是他死亡的一个间接原因,但这间接是要去到什么程度才算是合理?不妨先去介绍明示条文应该可以说是最广泛的―直接或间接导致‖(directly or indirectly caused by or arising from)。这里首先去介绍案件:Coxe v. Employers Liability Assurance (1916.) 2 KB 629,案情涉及了一个军人在检阅士兵的时候被火车撞死,因为当时是在一战期间,灯火管制导致路轨周围昏暗。有关的保险合约说明是不赔偿军人的死亡如果死亡是直接或间接由战争引起或导致(This policy does not insure against death…directly or indirectly caused by , arising from, or traceable to …war…)。在第一审,判近因是战争。在上诉庭,Scrutton大法官认为有间接(indirectly)这一词,所以不能去干预仲裁庭的裁决。他也认为无法理解什么才是―间接的近因‖(indirect proximate cause),但可以清楚看到是双方想去排除近因原则,说:
―… the words which I find it impossible to escape from are ?directly or indirectly.‘ There does not appear to be any authority in which those words have been considered, and I find it impossible to reconcile them with the maxim causa proxima non remota spectatur. If it were contended that the result of the words is that the proximate cause, whether direct or indirect, is to be looked at, I should reply that that result does not appear to me to be consistent or intelligible. I am unable to understand what is an indirect proximate cause, and in my judgment the only possible effect which can be given to those words is that the maxim causa proxima non remota spectatur is excluded and that a more remote link in the chain of causation is contemplated than the proximate and immediate cause.‖
但Scrutton大法官也感觉到间接这一次很难给它一个合理的限制,他提到该军人的出生也可以认为是他死亡的一个间接原因。但他也给了一些指引说:―a more remote link in the chain of causation is contemplated.‖而在先例Spinney‘s v. Royal Insurance (1980) 1 Lloyd‘s Rep.406,Mustill 大法官认为间接的限制应该是有关系(connection),而不是去到一个地步原因再也不是造成损失的原因而变了是历史的一部分(an event ceases to be a cause of the loss, and becomes merely an item of history)。Mustill 大法官比较详细的判词是如下:
―I now turn to the question whether there was a sufficient causal connection between the operation of the excepted perils and the losses which I have described. The type of connection required is defined by the causation clause, and the mode of proof by the reverse burden clause. The meaning of the former was the subject of citation and argument at the trial. I do not find it necessary to discuss the reported decisions on the meaning of various individual words of the clause, for whatever they may mean on their own, it is quite clear that the draftsman has gone to great lengths to ensure that the doctrine of proximate cause does not apply. Plainly, there must be some limit on the application of the clause, for the chain of causation recedes infinitely into the past. The draftsman must have intended to stop somewhere: and that place must be the point at which an event ceases to be a cause of the loss, and becomes merely an item of history. The draftsman has not explained how that point is to be identified, nor indeed do I believe that words can be found to do so. It is, eventually, a matter of instinct---but an instinct guided by the fact that this is a policy which (unlike others in which similar clauses can be found) expressly insures against violent acts. In essence, the task is to assess whether the particular act of violence simply takes place against the background of a ?warlike‘ state of affairs, or whether it has itself (even if in a rather remote way) a warlike aspect of its own.‖ (加黑的是笔者的强调)
另在先例Oei v. Foster and Eagle Star Insurance Co Ltd (1982) 2 Lloyd‘s Rep. 170,也是类似的判法。最后去一提的是《O‘May on Marine Insurance》一书中,O‘May是建议最好避免使用―indirect‖一词,因为去给间接的因果关系一个合理的限制会是很困难(in view of the difficulty in setting any reasonable limits to indirect causation)。
另一个用词也会是改变与扩大近因原则是―可归因与‖(attributable to) 或―合理可归因与‖(reasonably attributable to),在海上保险也是保险人用在比较严重的风险,所以要更广泛的去把它排除在外,这就是受保人的恶意行为(wilful misconduct)。这种恶意行为在海上保险最典型的就是船东恶意凿沉船舶,在岸