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want to have to be the person to stand up in front of board in inquiry and say that I went ahead and told them to go ahead and fly this thing outside what the motor was qualified to . . . (Report of the Presideruial Comrrusszon on the Space Shuttle Accidem, 1986, p. 95).
起来的板前的调查，说我继续告诉他们先走的人的声明和飞这个东西之外什么电机是合格的。（该Presideruial Comrrusszon的航天飞机Accidem ，1986年报，第95页） 。
有些成员没有听到这个说法，因 为它休息时发生。谁是听到了三个高层官员忽略了它。
千篇一律他人的意见。群体思维的受害者往往有任何人有竞争的观点的对立的刻板看法。他们认为，反对派是太傻还是太软弱理解或有效地处理这个问题。
两个负责推出的前三名美国航空航天局官员显示这种态度。他们认为，他们完全了解的接头问题的性质和从来没有认真考虑过MTI工程师提出的反对意见。事实上，他们诋毁和纠缠反对派和他们的信息和意见。
Some members did not hear this statement
because it occurred during a break. Three top officials who did hear it ignored it.
Stereotyped Views of Others. Victims of groupthink often have a stereotyped view of the opposition of anyone with a competing opinion. They feel that the opposition is too stupid or too weak to understand or deal effectively with the problem.
Two of the top three NASA officials responsible for the launch displayed this attitude. They felt that they completely understood the nature of the joint problem and never seriously considered the objections raised by the MTI engineers. In fact they denigrated and badgered the opposition and their information and opinions.
Pressure on Dissent. Group members often appjy direct pressure to anyone who questions the validity of the arguments supporting a decision or position favored by the majority. These same two officials pressured MTI to change its position after MTI originally recommended that the launch not take place. These two officials pressured Mrfl personnel to prove that it was not safe to launch, rather than to prove the opposite. As mentioned earlier, this was a total reversal of normal preflight procedures. It was this pressure that top MTI management was responding to when they overruled their engineering staff and recommended launch. As the Commission report states:
_ At approximately 11 p.m. Eastern
Standard Time, the ThiokoUNASA ielecon ference resumed, the Thiokot managemeru stating that they had reassessed the problem, that the temperature
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压力异议。小组成员经常直接压力的人谁质疑的支持，受到广大青睐的决定或位置参数的有效性。这些相同的两位官员施压改变立场后，台扬原本建议推出不会发生。这两位官员施压人员证明它是不是安全启动，而不是为了证明相反。如前面提到的，这是正常的预检程序总的逆转。正是这种压力最重要的是管理是在回应时，他们否决了他们的工程技术人员，
inconclusive . . . (p. 96).
This seems to indicate that NASA's pressure on these Thiokol officials forced them to change their recommendation from delay to execution of the launch.
Self Censorship. Group members tend to censor themselves when they have opinions or ideas that deviate from the apparent group consensus. JaniS feels that this reflects each member's inclination to minimize to himself or herself the importance of his or her own doubts and counter- arguments.
The most obvious evidence of self-censorship occurred when a vice president of MTI, who had previously presented information against launch, bowed to pressure from NASA and accepted their rationalizations for launch. He then wrote these up and presented them to NASA as the reasons that MTI had changed its recommendation to launch.
Iuusion of Unanimiry. Group members falling victim to groupthink share an illusion of unanimity conceming judgments
并建议推出。正如委员会报告指出：
made by members speaking in favor of the majority view. This symptom is caused in part
by the preceding one and is aided by the false assumption that any participant who remains
silent is in agreement with the majority opinion. The group leader and other members
support each other by playing up points of convergence in their thinking at the expense of
fully exploring points of divergence that might reveal unsettling problems.
No participant from NASA ever openly agreed with or even took sides with
大约在晚上11点东部标准时间
MTI in the discussion. The silence from NASA was probably amplified by the fact that
时， 干扰恢复， Thiokot 指出，他们
the meeting was a tejeconference linking the participants at three different locations.
已重新评估的问题，即温度的影响
Obviously, body language which might have
effects
were a concem, but that the data was admittedly
been evidenced by dissenters was not visible c
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但该数据是公认的定论。 。 。 （第96页） 。
这似乎表明，美国航空航天局对这些聚硫橡胶官员的压力迫使他们自己的建议，改变从延迟到执行的发射。
自我检查。集团成员倾向于自我审查时，他们有从组明显偏离共识意见或想法。詹尼斯认为，这反映了各成员的政策倾斜，以减少他或她自己的他或她自己的怀疑和重要性参数。
发生的自我审查的最明显的证据时， MTI副总裁，谁曾提出反对发射信息，垂首来自美国宇航局的压力，并接受他们的合理化发射。然后，他写这些了，并将其提交给美国航空航天局为
这MTI改变了其建议，推出的原因。
统一、一致的错觉。集团成员的牺牲品群体思维份额成员赞成多数人的意见的发言作出一致判断的错觉。此症状是由前一个引起部分，是由错误的假设是谁保持沉默，任何参与者在与多数意见同意资助。领导小组组长和其他成员互相支持打了收敛点在他们的思维在发散的可能揭示令人不安的问题的充分发掘点的费用。
从美国航空航天局没有参加过公开赞同，甚至偏袒与MTI讨论。来自美国宇航局的沉默可能是由以下事实，这次会议是一个tejeconference连接的参与者在三个不同的地点放大。显然，肢体语言可能已被证明反对者是不可见的其他人谁可能也举行了反对意见。
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to others who might also have held a
dissenting opinion. Thus, silence meant agreement.
Mindguarding. Certain group members assume the role of guarding the minds of others in the group. They attempt to shield the group from adverse information that might destroy the majority view of the facts regarding the appropriateness of the decision. The top management at Marshall knew that the rocket casings had been ordered redesigned to correct a flaw 5 months previous to this launch. This information and other technical details concerning the history of the joint problem was withheld at the meeting. Decision-Making Defects
The result of the antecedent conditions and the symptoms of groupthink is a defective decision-making process.JaniS discusses several defects in decision making that can result.
Few Altematives. The group considers only a few alternatives, often only two. No initial survey of all possible alternatives occurs. The Flight Readiness Review team had a launch/no-launch decision to make. These were the only two alternatives considered. Other possible alternatives might have been to delay the launch for further testing, or to delay until the temperatures reached an appropriate level.
No Re-Examination of altematives. The group fails to re-examine alternatives that may have been initially discarded based on early unfavorable information. Top NASA officials spent time and effort defending and strengthening their position, rather than examining the MTI position.
Rejecting Expert Opinions. Members make little or no attempt to seek outside experts opinions. NASA did not seek out other experts who might have some expertise in this area. They assumed that they had all the
information.
因此，沉默意味着同意。
自愿的思想警卫。某些小组成员承担守着别人心目中的组中的角色。他们试图从可能破坏有关的决定恰当的事实，大多数人的意见不良信息屏蔽的组。
高层管理人员在马歇尔知道，火箭外壳已下令重新设计，以纠正缺陷5个月在此之前推出。关于联合的问题历史上的这一信息和其他技术细节被隐瞒了会议。
决策缺陷
这项决策的前提条件和群体思维的症状的结果是有缺陷的决策process.JaniS论述的决策，可导致一些缺陷。
几个Altematives 。该小组认为，
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只有少数的替代品，往往只有两个。所有可能的备选方案没有初始调查发生。飞行考前复习队有一个启动/无发射的决定。这些是仅有的两个备选方案考虑。其他可能的替代方案可能是推迟发射进行进一步的测试，或延迟，直到气温达到适当的水平。
没有复审 。本集团未能重新审视替代品，可能已初步放弃基于早期的不利信息。美国宇航局官员花了时间和精力捍卫和巩固自己的地位，而不是检查MTI位置。
拒绝专家意见。大家做很少或没有尝试寻求外部专家的意见。美国航空航天局并没有找出谁可能有一些专业知识在这一领域的其他专家。他们假设，他们把所有的信息。
Rejecting Negative Information. Members tend to focus on supportive information and ignore any data or information that might cast a negative light on their preferred alternative. MTI representatives repeatedly tried to point out errors in the rationale the NASA officials were using to justify the launch. Even after the decision was made, the argument continued until a NASA official told the MTI representative that it was no longer his concern.
No Contingency Plans. Members spend little time discussing the possible consequences of the decision and, therefore, fail to develop contingency plans. There is no documented evidence in the Rogers Commission Report of any discussion of the possible consequences of an incorrect decision.
Summary of the Evidence
The major categories and key elements of the groupthink hypothesis have been presented (albeit somewhat briefly) along with evidence from the discussions prior to the launching of the Challenger, as reported in the President's Commission to investigate the accident. The antecedent conditions were present in the decision-making group, even though the group was in several physical locations. The leaders had a preferred solution and engaged in behaviors designed to promote it rather than critically appraise alternatives. These behaviors were evidence of most of the symptoms leading to a defective decision-making process. DISCUSSION
This situation provides another example of decision making in which the group fejI victim to the groupthink syndrome, as have so many previous groups. It illustrates the situation characteristics, the symptoms of group think, and decision-making defects as described by JaniS. This situation,however,
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